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Developing Speaking Skills in Foreign Language Teaching

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COURSE WORK Theme : Developing Speaking Skills in Foreign Language Teaching Done by : Ergasheva Manzura Scientific Adviser : To’rayeva Dilbar KARSHI 2019 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………3 Chapter І .Theoritical foundation of teaching speaking skills 1.1. What is ‘teaching speaking skills’?......................................................5 1.2. Disorganized nature of speaking……………………………………….7 1.3. Classroom implications: teachers’ expectations………………………11 1.4. Classroom implications: teaching materials…………………………...11 15. The types of communicative exchanges………………………………..16 1.6. Classroom implications: communicative tasks use…………………….17 1.7. Characteristics of conversation…………………………………………20 1.8. Communicative competence………………………………………………22 1.9. Individual aspects of teaching speaking skills: Fluency and accuracy……29 Chapter ІІ.The significance of classroom activities to promote teaching speaking 2.1. Activities to pro

Introduction It’s commonly known that CEFR is being gradually implemented in our faculty right after the adoption of the Presidential Decree Number 1875 which was signed on December 10, 2012. It has been more than a year that all educational places starting from primary schools and ending with higher educational institutions are busy with a hard work on enhancing the process of teaching and learning foreign languages. In these terms the approach of teaching English has been changed as well. Namely PRESETT program launched in all language institutions throughout Uzbekistan which is mainly based on communicative based approach. Thus, it means that the speaking skills of students are developed gradually. We decided to research the teaching speaking skills in order to find out how the 1 st and

CHAPTER I. THEORITICAL FOUNDATION OF TEACHING SPEAKING SKILLS 1.1. WHAT IS ‘TEACHING SPEAKING SKILLS’? Rebecca Hughes makes an interesting methodological point that as far as teaching speaking skills is concerned one needs to distinguish between ‘teaching the spoken form of a language’ and ‘teaching a language through speaking’. She also stresses the fact that unfortunately, when compared to writing, the spoken form is under-researched and that this may be one of the reasons why teachers may feel more confident when using ‘stable written forms and genres’ in their lessons (Hughes2011). At this point, we would like to argue that both of the above-mentioned concepts are interconnected. This may also be one of the reasons why they are rarely distinguished from each other when educators speak

happens in a context of public speaking. Speaking, however, is much more than that. Broader views focus either on communication realized to achieve specific purposes, e.g. to inform, to ask for explanations, etc., or they describe speaking in terms of its basic competences used in daily communication such as booking a room, giving directions, etc. What these approaches have in common is that they view communication and speaking as an inter active process in which individuals alternate in their roles as speakers and listeners and employ both verbal and non-verbal means to reach their communicative goals. Consistent with this view, is Nunan’s description of what teaching speaking involves. According to him, to teach speaking means to teach language learners to: · Produce the English speech s

what the main features of speaking are, as opposed to writing for example, and what skills are involved in the ability to speak a second language. These are the main points presented in this chapter. 1.2. DISORGANISED NATURE OF SPEAKING One of the basic features of speaking is that it takes place in real time. Due to the time constraints that allow speakers only limited planning time, speech production requires ‘real-time processing’ (Thornbury 2005: 2). This is one of the main reasons why language learners, and this isnot only restricted to true beginners, tend to find speaking difficult. Strategies used to ‘buy planning- time’ (Thornbury and Slade 2007) significantly shape the nature of speaking and distinguish it from writing. Crystal and Davy also mention time as “the main factor which

As early as in 1989, Holliday argues that “the spoken language is every bit as highly organized as the written, and is capable of just as great a degree of complexity. Only it is complex in a different way.” (Holliday, 1989: 87) In the book Spoken and Written Language, he also suggests that unlike written texts, spoken texts are dynamic and tend to have a lower degree of lexical density. By dynamics he means the tendency of spoken language to represent experience as processes. According to his words, written language describes the world in terms of its products and makes a greater use of nominalization, e.g. improvement instead of improve. By contrast, when one talks, one says that “something happened or something was done” (1989: 81) and one therefore tends to use more verbs. In reference

More than two decades later and building on the present research evidence, Thornbury reports that the ‘grammar’ of spoken texts is “constrained by how much information can be held in working memory at any one time” (Thornbury 2005: 4). As a result and as a way to compensate for limited planning time, speakers use the so-called ‘add-on strategy’ in places where written texts might use embedding or subordination. This strategy means that utterances, phrases or clauses, are added one after another and “glued together by the insertion of the appropriate grammatical markers” like articles, auxiliary verbs and word endings (2005: 4). Thornbury therefore describes speech as not only spontaneous but also as ‘essentially linear’. By linearity he means the fact that speech is produced ‘utterance-by-

characteristic of spoken language which is attributable to its spontaneity is the fact that information is relatively loosely packed.”(Thornbury and Slade 2007: 13) Therefore both informational (as in Thornbury and Slade 2007) and lexical (as in Holliday 1989) of spoken texts can be explained by the real-time processing and the time constraints speakers need to deal with. In addition, it can also be observed that both these aspects of spoken language are inevitable from the listeners’ perspective as well because while written texts allow readers to read a text as many times as necessary, spoken texts do not (Burns and Joyce 1997). Consequently, listeners need enough time to process the content of the utterances. Should it be too packed with information or lexis, listeners would find it har

(Burns and Joyce 1997: 14) All these facts have important implications for LT, which are to be presented in the section that follows. 1.3. CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS: TEACHERS’ EXPECTATIONS This section explores several important implications for classroom teaching arising from what was mentioned above. Firstly, it is crucial for teachers to realize that spoken language is essentially different from the written one. Teachers therefore cannot expect their students to speak in full sentences as if, in fact, they were producing written texts. Not only is this not the way people speak in reality but also expecting and requiring such skills from learners, would place extremely high pressure on their speech production for no reason at all. Such expectations might result in the learners’ later reluct

literature dealing with detailed description of spoken language and its use of lexico-grammatical structures. There has been a significant rise in research in this area in recent years and books like Longman student grammar of spoken and written English (Bieber et al. 2004) or preferably Longman grammar of spoken and written English (Biber1999) provide quite detailed accounts of spoken language use based on corpus research. Another book dealing with spoken grammar in an unconventional way, which has already been mentioned, is A Grammar of Speech (Brazil 1995).Furthermore, teachers may also find it beneficial to make use of spoken language corpora that are accessible on the Internet. They may even choose to teach corpus-based techniques in classroom for the benefit of their learners. Conrad

difficult to find desirable samples online. More high-tech teachers may even consider recording their own spoken texts. In fact, this is something which can be done quite easily, e.g. while on holiday chatting with your friends or asking your native-speaking colleagues to talk on a certain topic, using specific language, etc. I personally have good experience with both using recordings from the Internet and working in class with my own mp3 recordings and I have seen both techniques being used with a few other teachers, too. More than thirty years ago, Crystal and Davy (1979) complained of the tendency of textbooks not to be real: People in textbooks, it seems, are not allowed to tell long and unfunny jokes, to get irritable or to lose their temper, to gossip (especially about other people)

Furthermore, even though the authors recognize some of the potential benefits of scripted dialogues especially at the beginning stages of learning, they warn against their exclusive use and point out that: (...) if students are restricted to scripted dialogues they will develop an unrealistic view of the features of spoken language and will not be prepared for their role as participants in spoke n interactions in social contexts. For students to be able participate in spoken interactions outside the classroom, the teacher will need to introduce authentic discourse gradually into the classroom .Authentic spoken texts are more difficult for students to deal with and how and when students are introduced to authentic discourse will depend on their level of language and their goals. Burns and J

made clear is that using authentic materials and/or work with transcripts of spoken data is not to be applied exclusively or exhaustively. Similarly to others, my experience is that adapted materials help learners progress faster from beginning to intermediate levels. However, this advantage should not be misused at the expense of excluding real language from classrooms – a practice that might make a language classroom a safe and secure island for learners and teachers It is clear that such a procedure would not be desirable for learners in the long term. Along the same lines, Nunan (2010) states that “learners should be fed as rich a diet of authentic data as possible, because, ultimately, if they only encounter contrived dialogues and listening texts their learning task would be made mor

choice. If this is not an option, they can grab this opportunity as a challenge to include some more authentic materials in their lessons. 1.5. THE TYPES OF COMMUNICATIVE EXCHANGE Having discussed the question of context, let us concentrate on the types of communicative exchanges that can be identified within certain communicative contexts. Based on a communicative situation and its purpose, two main types of communicative exchanges can be classified: transactional and interactional. By gate suggests that conversations are comprised of predictable routines. He distinguishes between information routines (called transactional by other authors) and interactional routines (Bygate1987). Both types differ in their purpose and structure. Information routines consist of a number of highly predicta

Father: Sleep well? Daughter: Uh-uh. The thunder woke me up. Father: Loud, wasn’t it. And the lightning . . . . What are you doing? Daughter: I’m going to finish watching that . . . Father: Well, don’t have it on too loud. Jenny’s still asleep.(p. 228) Although it is self-evident that the purpose of the first situation is transactional, there is an interactional element in the first part of the exchange. Similarly, while the second extract fulfils mainly an interactional function, the last line of the dialogue is clearly transactional (Nunan 2010). Nevertheless, even though “many speaking situations can be a mixture of interactional and transactional purposes” (Burns and Joyce 1997: 5), Nunan reports that “Bygate’s routines facilitate communication for first language speakers because they

from practicing various kinds of transactional interactions because these will help them prepare themselves for real-life situations. Moreover, Nunan (2010) stresses the fact that learning prefabricated conversational patterns enables learners to ‘outperform’ their competence. This means that learners can become relatively confident in many situations even with rather limited language means at their disposal. On the other hand, interactional exchanges, in comparison with transactional ones, will probably bring more life and enjoyment in the classroom thanks to their free nature and eventual in conclusion of sharing personal experiences. Moreover, the latter point is believed to be a motivating factor facilitating LA based on the evidence from peer-interaction studies. Willis (1996) even li

completion. Other learners who, on the other hand, follow the given pattern to the letter usually end up quoting parts of the given phrases or sentences without changing them too much. It is true that at beginning stages strictly guided tasks may help learners focus on how to say things rather than think about what to say next and thus extend their communicative potential – at least for the course of the task. However, such training will not equip them with the skills that are necessary to engage in similar interactions on their own in the long term. Therefore, since the number of skills that learners practice in this way is highly limited and such an activity has a tendency to turn into a drill exercise rather than a conversation, freer tasks might be more appropriate allowing learners to

does not seem to qualify as a task type in task-based materials because it is not a clearly structured and goal-oriented activity. They further explain that some scholars, such as Skehan, are sceptical as to the value of conversation. In Skehan’s view “the elliptical and jointly constructed nature of conversation is not conducive to the production of well-formed sentences, and speakers are able to ‘by pas syntax’ a great deal of the time” (Skehan cited in Thornbury and Slade 2010: 269). However, based on the findings in 2001, Nakahama et al. suggest that “conversation should be studied in much more detail as a potential source of rich learning opportunities” (in Thornbury and Slade 2010: 270), a conclusion which is consistent with Thornbury and Slade’s line of argument. As a result of a lo

time, is spontaneous, has a largely, interpersonal function, and in which participants share symmetrical rights. (2007: 25) Conversation, involving a two-way interaction between people, requires from its participants abroad range of skills. Participants need to know how to interact and manage talk. They need to be familiar with the rules of turn-taking, that is they need to know when and how to interrupt, take the floor and how to hold it, how to change the topic, how to signal they wish to speak and how to yield the turn. Furthermore, it is important for them to know how to signal interest and the fact that you are listening or even how to avoid long silences (Thornbury 2005). Quite importantly, all of these skills need to be employed readily at a moment’s notice usually several of them a

applies for turn-taking. Smooth transitions between turns usually happen with speakers that collaborate (Burns and Joyce 1997). As a result, conversational ways needs to be viewed as an act of multiple parties where each individual is responsible for the potential success or failure of a communication. Consequently, it can be said that conversation is greatly shaped by individual personalities of all participating members and their styles of communication. This means that even under ideal conditions, when all speakers converse in their L1, not all conversations are successful. If for whatever reason one of the speakers is uncooperative, this will be reflected in the conversation. Similarly, Hughes 2006 refers to evidence that communicative success of L2 speakers in L2environment depends on

explained that as a record of natural speech, performance is imperfect carrying numerous false starts, deviations from rules, etc. In contrast, Hymes (as cited in Magnan 2007: 350) defines communicative competence as the ability ‘to participate in [the child’s] society as not only a speaking, but also a communicating member. Hymes’s understanding of competence is much broader than to comprise only a linguistic perspective. Trosborg notes that Hymes expands the definition to encompass “all rule-systems underlying language use, and thus accords a central role to socio cultural factors” (Trosborg 1986: 9). On the same page, she further adds that the work of Hymes “exemplifies the shift away from the study of language as a system in isolation towards the study of language as communication”. So

the focus will therefore be shifted to the individual aspects that learners need to incorporate in order to achieve communicative competence. Furthermore, even though Canale and Swain point out that there are two basic dimensions to communicative competence: knowledge and skill (Trosborg: 1986), this chapter discusses mainly the former, i.e. the knowledge that one needs to possess to become a competent speaker. However, it should not be forgotten, that attaining communicative competence would not be possible without a great deal of skill. It has been already pointed out that communicative competence consists of four dimensions: linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic. Linguistic competence that is to be discussed here encompasses the knowledge of grammar, lexis, syntax, phonet

· will, would, and can are extremely common in speech. By including this list, we do not mean to suggest that progressive forms, past and present perfect continuous and passive voice should be excluded from tuition. However, the time that might be wasted to help learners attain an active command of these phenomena, might be better spent practicing other aspects of communicative competence that would actually make a difference in terms of learners’ practical communicative abilities, e.g. sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competences. Having mentioned grammar, it needs to be pointed out that some important discoveries have been made, which unfortunately have not yet been properly reflected in LT syllabuses. In 1973,Brown and his colleagues found that FLA of grammatical morphemes in En

In reference to the range of vocabulary that is needed for spoken interaction Thornbury and Slade (2007) quote Nation saying that “from the small amount of evidence available, it seems that about half the words needed to understand written English are needed to understand spoken English” (2007: 42). Thornbury (2005) adds that “according to some estimates, a vocabulary of just 2,500 words covers nearly 95% of spoken text (compared to 80% of written text)” (2005: 23).This is good news, since a similar percentage (90%) is generally quoted as necessary for one to be able to make sense of any text, whether written or spoken (e.g Lightbown and Spada 2006). What follows is that the knowledge of roughly 2,500 words should be a sufficient range to provide learners with an operational command of En

As Thornbury explains “knowing how to ask How do you do that here? may be more useful than a list of ‘dos and don’ts’” (2005: 32). The discussion of speech acts leads us to the third area of communicative competence, i.e. discourse competence. Even though not named specifically, this dimension has already been touched upon when discussing the characteristics of conversation (see section 2.1.7).To sum up briefly what exactly falls under this category, discourse knowledge involves knowing how speakers realize their turns and signal their intentions through the use of discourse markers. Discourse competence also enables speakers to be coherent and use register appropriately. Communication strategies can be viewed from another perspective as a positive tool that helps listeners to ‘negotiate m

communicating their message and b) to easily overcome time-processing demands. This is true for all kinds of verbal expression, whether speaking L2 or one’s own L1, a fact which I have observed as a teacher and a language learner and also as an occasional participant in sessions of Toastmasters International, a non-profit educational organization teaching public speaking skills. The range of skills that is needed for successful communication is really broad. To summarize let me present a specific list of features that are particularly useful for learners, as recommended by Richards (1990) for teaching conversation: · how to use conversation for both transactional and interactional purposes · how to produce both short and long turns in conversation · strategies for managing turn-taking in c

To sum up, speaking and successful communication require knowledge of linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic features. Even though to some it may seem that linguistic dimension such as knowledge of grammar structures and vocabulary are the major aspects of communicative competence, research shows that deficiencies in other areas such as discourse and socio cultural competence may have more significant impact on communication than incorrect grammar use. On the other hand, it needs to be pointed out that overall it is one’s language proficiency that strategies can help learners bridge certain gaps in their knowledge, they cannot substitute for one’s overall low language proficiency. Therefore effective speaking skills teaching involves systematic development of all dimensions

(Wu 2008). Since fluency means also accuracy, it is clear that the aim of CLT is to reach both. Fluency is reflected mainly in two aspects: speed of delivery and regularity, which means a natural amount and distribution of pauses (Bygate 2009). On the subject of appropriate placement of pauses Thornbury (2005) says that: Natural-sounding pauses are those that occur at the intersection of clauses or after groups of words that form a meaningful unit. (The vertical lines in the last sentence mark where natural pauses might occur if the sentence were being spoken.) Unnatural pauses, on the other hand, occur midway between related groups of words. (p. 7) Next, one of the issues that have been discussed in the previous chapters is the importance of work with spoken data and transcripts in ELT. F

Quite importantly, in the light of research evidence, Thornbury (2005) and Thornbury and Slade(2007) suggest that reaching native-like fluency is only possible thanks to prefabricated chunks or formulaic language that speakers use. These units include fixed phrases and idiomatic chunks such as on the other hand, at the end of the day, or It is a small world. Johnson (1996) states that a great deal of formulaic language is acquired unconsciously either from direct transfer from L1 or from exposure to authentic L2 input. He refers to these language items as ‘acquired output’, i.e. language that is acquired unconsciously and produced automatically in tasks which require ‘high automaticity’. Oral communication due to its real-time processing demands falls under this category. There is evidence

repeatedly inside and outside the classroom. If a song is particularly catchy, learners are quite likely to memorize a great deal of text by themselves. Apart from this, song are good sources of authentic language, allow learners to experience a variety of accents, motivate learning while making it fun, break down barriers and build a relaxed atmosphere. Besides, songs can be used with all ages and practically all proficiency levels if they are chosen appropriately. In terms of practicality, with the arrival of the digital era, songs can be easily obtained for classroom use along with transcribed lyrics on the Internet. ESL websites describe a number of activities which teachers can exploit when using songs. My favorite is to write down language from song lyrics (e.g. formulaic chunks) on

learners to speculate in small groups what the story behind the headlines might be and agree on the version of a story which is most probable/interesting/unusual, etc. This way learners use the language in the headlines meaningfully several times while speculating about the stories. They also make use of a great range of linguistic means when negotiating their stories. Next, learners can be asked to present their idea to the class. At the following stage, learners can be given real texts which the headlines refer to. Discussing the stories with their partners or within their groups, they compare how the texts differ from their own stories. Even though it has been said that fluency and accuracy are closely linked together, for the purposes of LT, activities to practice speaking are sometime

Typical fluency-focused task types are opinion-sharing activities like discussions and debates, storytelling, creative tasks such as designing plans for a new school facility and board games which require learners to speak on a particular topic, etc. Apart from this, many accuracy-focused tasks may be adapted to focus on fluency as well. For example, the ‘Find someone who’ task, can be made more complex by asking learners to expand their answers if positive and report in detail about their experience, such as ‘the best film they have seen’ or ‘the most beautiful place they have visited’. Naturally, such a procedure is more time-consuming. It should be added at this point that scholars differ in their understanding of what is necessary for a communicative task to be effective. For instance,

7. encourage the development of speaking strategies (based on Brown 2008) To conclude, this section showed that it is necessary to utilize both accuracy and fluency focused tasks in the classroom. Accuracy-focused activities are likely to help learners use language correctly, while fluency- focused activities will help them produce fluent stretches of language. On the whole, fluency-focused activities are the ultimate goal in a classroom setting because they help learners prepare for ‘what is out there’. As has been pointed out, another important aspect of teaching fluency is assisting learners in building their formulaic language. Furthermore, this section mentioned some important qualities of efficient speaking tasks, such as the need for them to be meaningful, intrinsically motivating,

2.1 Activities To Promote Speaking Discussions After a content-based lesson, a discussion can be held for various reasons. The students may aim to arrive at a conclusion, share ideas about an event, or find solutions in their discussion groups. Before the discussion, it is essential that the purpose of the discussion activity is set by the teacher. In this way, the discussion points are relevant to this purpose, so that students do not spend their time chatting with each other about irrelevant things. For example, students can become involved in agree/disagree discussions. In this type of discussions, the teacher can form groups of students, preferably 4 or 5 in each group, and provide controversial sentences like “people learn best when they read vs. people learn best when they travel”. T

Role Play One other way of getting students to speak is role-playing. Students pretend they are in various social contexts and have a variety of social roles. In role-play activities, the teacher gives information to the learners such as who they are and what they think or feel. Thus, the teacher can tell the student that "You are David, you go to the doctor and tell him what happened last night, and…" (Harmer, 1984) Simulations Simulations are very similar to role-plays but what makes simulations different than role plays is that they are more elaborate. In simulations, students can bring items to the class to create a realistic environment. For instance, if a student is acting as a singer, she brings a microphone to sing and so on. Role plays and simulations have many advantages.

everybody has the opportunity to talk extensively in the target language. Brainstorming On a given topic, students can produce ideas in a limited time. Depending on the context, either individual or group brainstorming is effective and learners generate ideas quickly and freely. The good characteristics of brainstorming is that the students are not criticized for their ideas so students will be open to sharing new ideas. Storytelling Students can briefly summarize a tale or story they heard from somebody beforehand, or they may create their own stories to tell their classmates. Story telling fosters creative thinking. It also helps students express ideas in the format of beginning, development, and ending, including the characters and setting a story has to have. Students also can tell rid

present his or her study to the class. Moreover, students can interview each other and "introduce" his or her partner to the class. Story Completion This is a very enjoyable, whole-class, free-speaking activity for which students sit in a circle. For this activity, a teacher starts to tell a story, but after a few sentences he or she stops narrating. Then, each student starts to narrate from the point where the previous one stopped. Each student is supposed to add from four to ten sentences. Students can add new characters, events, descriptions and so on. Reporting Before coming to class, students are asked to read a newspaper or magazine and, in class, they report to their friends what they find as the most interesting news. Students can also talk about whether they have experienc

If the topic "Diamonds: Earning Money" is selected, here are some possible questions:  Is money important in your life? Why?  What is the easiest way of earning money?  What do you think about lottery? Etc. However, the teacher should state at the very beginning of the activity that students are not allowed to prepare yes-no questions, because by saying yes or no students get little practice in spoken language production. Rather, students ask open-ended questions to each other so that they reply in complete sentences. Picture Narrating This activity is based on several sequential pictures. Students are asked to tell the story taking place in the sequential pictures by paying attention to the criteria provided by the teacher as a rubric. Rubrics can include the vocabulary or st

For this activity students can work in pairs and each couple is given two different pictures, for example, picture of boys playing football and another picture of girls playing tennis. Students in pairs discuss the similarities and/or differences in the pictures. 2.2 THE ROLE OF TEACHERS IN CONDUCTING ACTIVITIES Here are some suggestions for English language teachers while teaching oral language:  Provide maximum opportunity to students to speak the target language by providing a rich environment that contains collaborative work, authentic materials and tasks, and shared knowledge.  Try to involve each student in every speaking activity; for this aim, practice different ways of student participation.  Reduce teacher speaking time in class while increasing student speaking time. Step bac

 Provide the vocabulary beforehand that students need in speaking activities.  Diagnose problems faced by students who have difficulty in expressing themselves in the target language and provide more opportunities to practice the spoken language. Conclusion Speaking is the key to communication. By considering what good speakers do, what speaking tasks can be used in class, and what specific needs learners report, teachers can help learners to improve their speaking and overall oral competency. Teaching speaking is a very important part of second language learning. The ability to communicate in a second language clearly and efficiently contributes to the success of the learner in school and success later in every phase of life. Therefore, it is essential that language teachers pay great a

REFERENCES 1. Anderson, A. et al. (1984) Teaching talk: strategies for production and assessment.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2. Austin, J. L. (1962) How to do things with words. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. 3. BBC and British Council (2005) Teaching English website: Teaching Resources: Telephone role plays. Retrieved from: http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/activities/telephone-role-plays 4. Biber, D. et al. (2004) Longman student grammar of spoken and written English. 4th edition. Harlow: Longman. 5. Brown, H. D. (2008) Teaching by Principles. An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. 3 rd edition. White Plains, NY: Pearson Longman. 6. Burns, A. and Joyce, H. (1997) Focus on Speaking. Sydney: National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research. 7. Bygat

13. Hughes, R. (2011) Teaching and researching speaking. 2nd edition. Harlow: Longman. 14. Hutchinson, T. (2007) English for Life Pre-intermediate Student’s Book. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 15. Krashen, S. D. and Terrell, T. D. (1983) The natural approach: language acquisition in the classroom. Oxford: Pergamon Press. 16. Little wood, William T. (1983) Communicative language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 17. Nunan, D. (1989) Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 18. Savignon, S. J. (1997) Communicative Competence: Theory and classroom practice. 2^nd edition. New York: Mc GrawHill. 19. Seymour, D. and Popova, M. (2003) 700 Classroom Activities. Oxford: Macmillan Education. 20. Thornbury, S. (2005) How to Teach Speaki

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