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5700 ПродажFunction words in English language
![contributed to this process, and the historical and semantic ratio of its constituent
parts. Besides that, the vocabulary of any language is replenished with vocabulary
units in various ways. Like other languages, modern English is replenished mainly
in two ways: word formation or borrowing. In the linguistic literature related to the
formation of words, word formation terms are used. This term is understood as the
formation of new words, by means of various word formation means, acting in a
given language at a given period of its development. ” [8, 42]
“Thus, word formation is closely related on the one hand with vocabulary, on
the other with grammar. The connection between word formation and vocabulary
lies in the fact that each newly arisen word becomes a unit of the vocabulary of the
language. At the same time, however, the process of creating new words is carried
out according to those models, forms that are characteristic of a given language. In
addition, each newly created word includes in one or another lexicon-grammatical
category of words, called a part of speech. This is the close connection between
word formation and grammar. The close connection of word formation with
vocabulary grammar makes it possible to include the word formation section in the
description of the vocabulary of the language and its grammatical structure. A
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![primary cause is that changes in the political and economic spheres affect the
population that speaks a particular language or dialect.
The phrase “word formation” does not have a widely recognized definition
these days. Sometimes, it refers to all procedures involved in altering the word's
form, such as affixation, which is a topic of shape. In a more comprehensive sense,
word formation refers to the processes involved in producing new lexical units.
Even while it appears to be fairly simple to distinguish between a word's
morphological change and its creation, there can occasionally be disagreement
over whether blending counts as a morphological change or the development of a
new word. Of course, there are many word generation processes that are extremely
similar in most languages and do not give rise to any disputes.
“The enrichment of the vocabulary of the language occurs in various ways.
The most important of them is the formation of new words through the productive
ways of word formation that exist at a given period of language development.
Meanwhile, the main problems of word formation are the problems of defining
such basic concepts as "word", "morpheme", "types of morphemes", "base", "types
of bases", "word-formation meaning", "the main productive ways of word
formation in the modern English language." Based on the fact that there are many
definitions of the word. As L. Bauer says, the problem of defining a word has long
existed in linguistic theory, since, although the concept of "word" is defined, in
some languages there are some elements called words by the speakers of these
languages, but which, in fact, do not correspond to the definition of a word.” [5,
209]
Word formation is the most productive way to expand the vocabulary of a
language. Word formation in the language system is determined by its function, i.e.
the creation of new words and phraseological units that name new concepts. The
study of word formation processes allows a deeper understanding of the interaction
of subjective and objective factors in the language, to identify various ways of
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![CHAPTER II. MAIN ASPECTS OF FUNCTION WORDS, THEIR
CATEGORIES AND RELEVANCE
2.1 Analyzing the use of function words in different styles of language
Most linguists accept that there is a set of function words that can be
characterized as "closed class." But there is no consensus on exactly which words
this comprises. Since language inference is a discovery process, membership in the
closed class should be based on a criterion that identifies function words by
analysing their usage patterns. Of the previously mentioned characteristics of
function words, relative high frequency is the only one that can be determined
from a static language analysis. We define function words operationally as those
that occur more frequently than a certain predetermined threshold. The value of the
threshold is ultimately determined arbitrarily. However, we can draw on the
literature to develop a rough guideline.
“There are approximately 500 or so function words in English, and, of the
100 most common words in English, most are function words." The average
person's everyday vocabulary consists of about 10,000 words. Thus the top 1 % of
most frequently used words from a typical vocabulary is a reasonable first
approximation to the closed class- assuming that the functional importance of the
other 400 words diminishes along with their declining frequency. Table 1 provides
partial lists of the most common words from the vocabularies employed by
Thomas Hardy in Far From the Madding Crowd and Herman Melville in Moby
Dick. A cursory analysis reveals that words used with the highest frequencies fit
well with our intuitive notion of the function word.” [6, 1043]
Function words, while often overlooked in everyday conversation, play a
crucial role in shaping the style and tone of language. These words, encompassing
articles, prepositions, conjunctions, and pronouns, among others, contribute
significantly to the structure, flow, and expressiveness of various linguistic styles.
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![The word formation models of modern English refer to the processes and
rules that govern how new words are created in the language. Some common word
formation models in English include:
“Affixation. Affixation is a linguistic process in which derivational affixes,
such as prefixes and suffixes, are added to a base word to create a new word with a
different meaning or grammatical function. For example, the prefix "un-" can be
affixed to the word "happy" to create the word "unhappy," indicating the opposite
of happy. Similarly, the suffix "-ly" can be affixed to the adjective "quick" to
create the adverb "quickly." Affixation is a common and productive process in
many languages for expanding the vocabulary and expressing nuanced meanings.
The process of adding prefixes (e.g. un-), suffixes (e.g. -less), or infixes (e.g. -m-)
to a root word to create a new word.” [7, 31]
Compounding. Compounding is a word formation process in which two or
more words are combined to create a new word. For example, "snow" and "ball"
are combined to form the compound word "snowball." Compounding is a common
way to create new words in English and can involve joining together nouns, verbs,
adjectives, or other parts of speech to form a single word with a specific meaning.
The process of combining two or more existing words to create a new word, such
as "laptop" (from "lap" and "top") or "blackboard" (from "black" and "board").
“Conversion. Conversion is a way to form new words in English by
changing the part of speech of an existing word without adding any affixes. For
example, "to email" is a verb formed from the noun "email," and "to text" is a verb
formed from the noun "text." This process allows for the creation of new words
without the need for adding prefixes or suffixes. The process of changing the
grammatical category of a word without adding any affixes, such as using a noun
as a verb (e.g. "email") or a verb as a noun (e.g. "jog").
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![used extensively to guide the reader through complex arguments and ideas.
Articles ("the," "a," "an"), conjunctions ("because," "however," "therefore"), and
pronouns ("this," "that," "these") help to establish logical connections within a
text, making it easier for the reader to follow the author's train of thought and
understand the relationships between different concepts.
“In everyday conversations, function words are indispensable for
expressing thoughts and emotions, as well as for coordinating interactions with
others. Using pronouns ("he," "she," "they"), prepositions ("with," "to," "for"),
and conjunctions ("so," "though," "since") allows individuals to convey their
intentions, share information, and collaborate with others in a clear and effective
manner. Function words are an essential aspect of effective communication in
various real-life scenarios. Whether in professional settings, academic contexts,
or everyday interactions, understanding and using function words appropriately is
crucial for conveying meaning, organizing ideas, and maintaining coherence in
language. In language learning, the application of function words is not merely an
academic exercise but a practical necessity. Proficiency in using articles,
prepositions, conjunctions, and other function words empowers learners to
construct grammatically correct sentences, convey nuanced meanings, and
navigate the intricacies of a language. The importance of mastering function
words is underscored by their foundational role in building linguistic competence
and enhancing the overall language learning experience.” [14, 113]
Conclusion of Chapter II. In conclusion, the main aspects of function
words cover a wide range of categories and hold significant relevance in the study
of language and communication. Function words, as compared to content words,
play a crucial role in expressing grammatical relationships, conveying nuances of
meaning, and facilitating the overall coherence and cohesion of speech and
writing. The categories of function words include pronouns, prepositions,
conjunctions, determiners, and auxiliary verbs, each serving a distinct purpose in
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![indefiniteness of a noun, while pronouns replace nouns, and auxiliary verbs help
form tenses, aspects, and moods of other verbs.” [9, 291]
Lack of Content: Function words typically do not carry specific lexical
meaning on their own. Instead, they provide structural or grammatical information.
For example, the pronouns "he," "she," and "it" do not convey specific information
about the referent on their own, but rather indicate the gender or number of the
noun being referred to. Function words, also known as closed-class words, are a
crucial part of any language. While they often receive less attention than content
words, such as nouns and verbs, they play a vital role in shaping the structure and
meaning of sentences. Function words encompass a wide range of categories,
including articles (the, a, an), conjunctions (and, but, or), prepositions (in, on, at),
pronouns (he, she, they), and auxiliary verbs (is, have, will). Each of these
categories serves a specific function in the language.
Articles, such as "the," "a," and "an," are used to introduce nouns and
specify their definiteness. They help to indicate whether a noun is a specific entity
or a general one. Conjunctions like "and," "but," and "or" are used to join words,
phrases, or clauses, allowing for the composition of complex and intricate
sentences. Prepositions, such as "in," "on," and "at," indicate the relationship
between nouns and other elements in the sentence, such as time, location, or
direction.
Pronouns, such as "he," "she," and "they," stand in for specific nouns,
avoiding repetition and adding fluidity to the language. They enable speakers and
writers to refer back to previously mentioned entities without restating them
explicitly. Auxiliary verbs, including "is," "have," and "will," work alongside main
verbs to express tense, aspect, and modality. They play a crucial role in indicating
the time of an action, its completion status, and the speaker's attitude toward it.
Function words may lack the semantic content of nouns and verbs, but they
provide the structure and organization needed to convey meaning effectively.
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![Function words contribute to the rhythm and flow of language, making
communication more engaging and pleasant to the listener or reader. Example: "I
went to the store and bought some groceries" flows more smoothly with the
appropriate use of conjunctions.” [3, 106]
Semantic Clarity: Understanding the functions of words helps learners
convey precise meanings. Function words often carry nuanced meanings or
indicate specific relationships between elements in a sentence. This semantic
clarity is crucial for avoiding ambiguity and misinterpretation in communication.
Example: The distinction between "because of" and "in spite of" relies on the
correct application of prepositions to convey contrasting meanings. Semantic
clarity in function words refers to the understanding of the meaning and purpose
of words that serve a grammatical function, such as articles, conjunctions,
prepositions, and pronouns. These words may not carry specific lexical meaning,
but they play a crucial role in organizing and connecting the content of a
sentence. Semantic clarity in function words involves using these words
effectively to convey precise and unambiguous meaning within a sentence or
discourse. It also involves understanding the subtle nuances and differences in
meaning that can be conveyed through the choice and placement of function
words.
Expressing Relationships: Function words play a pivotal role in
expressing various relationships within a sentence. Whether indicating time,
conditions, contrasts, or causality, the ability to use function words appropriately
allows learners to articulate complex ideas and convey a wide range of
relationships between concepts . Example: "Although it was raining, we went for a
walk" uses the conjunction "although" to express a contrast.
Cultural Nuances: Function words often carry cultural nuances, and
understanding their application aids learners in navigating the subtleties of a
language. Cultural contexts influence the use of function words, and language
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![learners benefit from grasping these nuances for effective communication.
Example: The use of polite forms (e.g., "please," "thank you") in English reflects
cultural expectations of politeness.
“Effective Communication: Function words are indispensable for
effective communication. They guide the listener or reader through the logical
progression of ideas, helping to structure information and facilitate
comprehension. Proficiency in the use of function words is, therefore,
fundamental for conveying messages accurately and coherently. Example: The
use of transitional words like "firstly," "secondly," and "finally" helps organize
information in a clear and systematic manner.” [15, 295]
Practical Application in Real-Life Scenarios: Language learning extends
beyond academic settings to real-life scenarios. Whether engaging in casual
conversations, writing emails, or participating in professional interactions, the
practical application of function words is crucial for successful communication in
diverse contexts. Function words, also known as structure words or grammatical
words, are a crucial component of language that help to organize and link the
content words in a sentence. They include pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions,
articles, and other words that serve to convey grammatical relationships and
connect different parts of a sentence. While function words may seem less
significant than content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs), they are
essential for creating coherent and meaningful communication.
In practical application, function words play a vital role in real-life
scenarios such as professional communication, academic writing, and everyday
conversations. One common example of function words in professional
communication is in the crafting of emails. Proper use of pronouns ("I," "you,"
"we"), prepositions ("to," "from," "at"), and conjunctions ("and," "but," "or") is
crucial for conveying a clear and professional tone, as well as for ensuring that
the message is organized and coherent. In academic writing, function words are
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![Analyzing their use in different styles of language offers insights into how function
words contribute to formality, informality, creativity, and other aspects of
communication.
Formal Language: Function words, also known as closed-class words, are
used in formal language to convey grammatical relationships and nuances of
meaning. These words serve as connectives or placeholders within a sentence,
expressing grammatical relationships between other words. Common function
words include articles (a, an, the), prepositions (in, on, at), conjunctions (and, but,
or), pronouns (he, she, it), auxiliary verbs (be, have, do), and others.
In formal language, the precise use of function words is essential for
conveying the intended meaning clearly and accurately. They help to structure the
sentence and convey the relationship between different elements. For instance, the
use of articles (definite or indefinite) can signal the specificity of a noun, while
prepositions indicate spatial or temporal relationships. Additionally, proper usage
of function words can significantly impact the formality and clarity of written or
spoken communication. In formal contexts, such as academic writing, legal
documents, or professional correspondence, attention to the correct usage of
function words is crucial to ensure precision and coherence.
“The function words used in formal language also play a significant role in
indicating the tone and style of communication. For example, the choice of
conjunctions and pronouns can affect the flow and formality of the language. In
legal or technical documents, the accurate use of auxiliary verbs and prepositions
can be critical for ensuring the legal or technical accuracy of the content. The use
of function words in formal language is a fundamental aspect of effective
communication. By understanding and employing these words appropriately,
writers and speakers can convey their ideas with precision, coherence, and
formality.” [10, 32].
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![conversational and approachable tone, often relying on basic conjunctions and
short clauses. Example: "I like pizza, but I'm not a big fan of sushi."
Pronoun Usage for Familiarity: Informal styles frequently incorporate
pronouns to establish familiarity and a sense of camaraderie between speakers.
First and second-person pronouns are prevalent in casual conversations. Example:
"I can't believe you're coming to the party too!"
Creative Language: Function words are a crucial part of creative language,
as they help to establish tone, rhythm, and flow in writing. These words, such as
articles, conjunctions, and prepositions, serve as the glue that holds the structure of
a sentence together. In creative writing, the strategic use of function words can
create a sense of intimacy, urgency, or formality, depending on the desired effect.
Moreover, function words can also contribute to the musicality and cadence of a
piece of writing, adding depth and nuance to the overall expression. Therefore,
understanding and harnessing the power of function words is essential for crafting
captivating and engaging creative language.” [13, 286]
a. Playful Use of Conjunctions: In creative writing, including fiction and
poetry, function words are often used in imaginative and playful ways.
Unconventional conjunctions and word choices contribute to the unique style of
the writing. Example: "The moon whispered secrets, and the stars danced in
cosmic delight."
b. Flexible Pronoun Usage: Creative styles may deviate from conventional
pronoun usage, allowing for a more flexible and experimental approach. Pronouns
might be manipulated to create ambiguity or to convey a particular artistic effect.
Example: "She walked through the crowd, a mystery in motion."
Academic Language: Function words in academic language, such as articles
(a, an, the), prepositions (in, on, at), conjunctions (and, but, because), and pronouns
(it, they, she), play a crucial role in conveying meaning and connecting ideas in a
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![Without function words, sentences would lack coherence, and the expression of
time, location, and relationships between elements would be considerably more
challenging. Therefore, while they may not be as attention-grabbing as content
words, function words are essential for the proper functioning of any language.
“Flexibility: Function words often exhibit greater inflection and variation in
form compared to content words. For example, pronouns and prepositions may
change form to indicate grammatical relationship or case, as in the difference
between "he" (subjective case) and "him" (objective case). Flexibility in function
words refers to the ability of these words to change in form and position within a
sentence to convey different meanings and grammatical functions. Function words
are a category of words in a language that serve to express grammatical
relationships, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns, and auxiliary
verbs. They are essential for conveying the structure and coherence of a sentence.
One aspect of flexibility in function words is their ability to take on different forms
to indicate variations in tense, number, gender, and case. For example, English
pronouns like "he," "she," and "it" change form to indicate different genders and
number, while auxiliary verbs such as "is," "was," and "will be" change form to
express variations in tense, aspect, and mood. In addition, function words can
exhibit flexibility in their position within a sentence, allowing for variations in
emphasis, focus, and information structure. For instance, the placement of
prepositions and conjunctions can affect the overall meaning and coherence of a
sentence. In languages with flexible word order, such as Latin or Russian, function
words play a crucial role in signaling the grammatical relationships between
different elements in a sentence.” [18, 16]
The flexibility of function words also extends to their capacity to combine
and form complex structures, such as phrasal verbs in English or compound
prepositions in German. These combinations allow for the expression of nuanced
meanings and provide a rich tapestry of linguistic resources for communication.
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![clear and precise manner. These function words help guide the reader through the
text, establish relationships between different parts of the writing, and create
coherence and cohesion in academic discourse. Additionally, the appropriate use of
function words can help academic writers convey their arguments and ideas
effectively, making their writing more scholarly and professional.
a. Emphasis on Determiners: In academic writing, the use of determiners is
prominent to specify the scope and nature of the discussion. Precise article usage
and quantifiers contribute to the rigor of the argument. Example: "This study
focuses on the impact of climate change on a specific subset of ecosystems."
b. Cohesive Use of Conjunctions: Academic language emphasizes the
cohesive use of conjunctions to link ideas and maintain logical flow. Coordinating
and subordinating conjunctions are carefully employed to create well-structured
arguments. Example: "Furthermore, the research methodology employed in this
study ensures a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon."
“Technical Language: Function words in technical language play an
important role in conveying precise meaning and facilitating clear communication.
Function words such as articles (a, an, the), prepositions (in, on, at), conjunctions
(and, but, or), and pronouns (it, they, we) help to establish relationships between
different elements in a sentence and indicate the grammatical structure of a
sentence. In technical writing, the use of function words is crucial for providing
precise instructions, describing processes, and conveying accurate information.
These words help organize and clarify complex technical concepts and ensure that
the intended meaning is understood by the reader. Additionally, function words are
essential for creating coherence and flow in technical documents, which is
important for conveying information effectively and facilitating the readers'
understanding of technical concepts.” [12, 21]
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![language is a product of a number of eras, therefore, in the vocabulary of a
language, you can find words created using such methods of word formation, which
operated in the early period of the development of the language and so have now
become productive, and words created with the help of productive methods of word
formation. Among the first, i.e. unproductive in the English language should be
noted the alternation of sounds, a change in stress, substance, lexicalization.” [4, 68]
The second group of word formation methods, along with word composition,
conversion, abbreviations, also includes affixation and, in particular, one of its
subtypes, prefixation, which in linguistic literature is considered as a way of word
formation, which includes the addition of prefixes to roots and stems. In the
linguistic literature, there are many descriptions of word formation methods, as
well as their classification based on various criteria. The meaningful interpretation
of such general categories as "objectivity", "proceduralist", "attributes", which are
considered in linguistics as components of a general nature characteristic of
extensive classes of words and expressed in natural language by various means.
“However, in our opinion, such a way of word formation does not exist,
since otherwise we would talk about the simultaneous addition of both the prefix
and the suffix to the word stem, which cannot be admissible, because each
derivational step includes only two immediate components. An important problem
of affixation is also determining the degree of productivity of affixes. The main
criterion according to which an affix can be considered productive is its ability to
form new words. The higher the ability, the more productive the affix. Some
affixes are more productive, others less. However, in our opinion, one cannot
speak of the complete (absolute) productivity of affixes, since there are no
absolutely productive affixes in a language. A linguist who denies the factor of
productivity will count dead souls.” [6; 82-86]
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![Function words often participate in a wide range of grammatical functions,
allowing them to adapt to different syntactic and semantic contexts. For example,
English articles "a," "an," and "the" can function as determiners, marking the
specificity or generality of a noun, while pronouns like "I," "you," and "he" can
serve as subjects, objects, or possessives within a sentence.
The flexibility of function words reflects the intricate nature of language and
the dynamic interplay between form and meaning. By adapting to different
syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic contexts, function words contribute to the
richness and expressiveness of a language, enabling speakers to convey a wide
array of ideas and concepts. As such, understanding the flexibility of function
words is essential for mastering the grammar and usage of a language.
“Sentence Structure: Function words are crucial for defining the
grammatical structure of a sentence. They help to signal the relationships between
words and phrases, as well as indicate the roles of different elements within a
sentence. For instance, conjunctions like "and," "but," and "or" connect words,
phrases, or clauses, while helping to establish the logical relationships between
them.
Sentence structure refers to the way words are organized and combined to
form a grammatically correct and coherent statement. In English, the structure of a
sentence typically consists of a subject, a verb, and an object, although the order of
these elements can vary. Function words, such as articles, prepositions, and
conjunctions, play a crucial role in organizing and connecting the different parts of
a sentence. They help to indicate relationships between words and convey
important grammatical information, such as tense, mood, and aspect. By using
function words effectively, writers can create clear, precise, and impactful
sentences that effectively communicate their intended message.” [2, 209]
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![“Precision and Clarity: Formal language, as used in academic, legal, or
professional contexts, relies heavily on function words to convey precise and
unambiguous meaning. Articles, determiners, and pronouns are carefully chosen to
enhance clarity, avoiding unnecessary repetition.
Example: "The defendant, Mr. Johnson, denied any involvement in the
alleged embezzlement."
Use of Complex Syntax: Formal styles often incorporate complex sentence
structures with a meticulous use of conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions.
This contributes to a more sophisticated and nuanced expression of ideas.
Example: "Although the experimental results were inconclusive, our study
underscores the need for further investigation.” [19, 56]
Informal Language: Function words are an essential part of language and
play a crucial role in both formal and informal communication. In informal
language, function words such as conjunctions (e.g., “and,” “but,” “or”),
prepositions (e.g., “in,” “on,” “at,” “from”), and determiners (e.g., “the,” “a,” “an”)
help to connect ideas, show relationships between words, and provide structure to
sentences. In informal language, function words are used to maintain the flow of
conversation and convey a sense of familiarity and casualness. They can also
contribute to the overall tone and style of informal communication. For example,
the use of contractions (e.g., “don’t,” “can’t,” “won’t”) and colloquial expressions
(e.g., “wanna,” “gonna,” “ain’t”) are common in informal language and add a less
formal and more conversational feel to the communication. Function words are
important in both formal and informal language, but their usage in informal
language often reflects a more relaxed and casual style of communication.
“Simplified Syntax: Conversely, informal language tends to use simpler
sentence structures with fewer subordinating elements. This creates a more
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![Blending. Blending refers to the practice of combining individual sounds to create new
words. For example, blending "sm" + "ash" creates the word "smash." This can be a
fun and effective way to help young learners understand the relationship between
sounds and spelling in words. The process of combining parts of two words to create a
new word, such as "brunch" (from "breakfast" and "lunch") or "smog" (from "smoke"
and "fog").” [20, 44]
Borrowing. Borrowing in word formation refers to the process of adopting
words from one language into another. This can occur for various reasons, such as
to fill a gap in vocabulary, to express a specific concept or idea, or simply due to
cultural exchange. Borrowing can take place between any languages and has been
a natural part of language development throughout history. Overall, borrowing
enriches languages and reflects the interconnectedness of different cultures and
societies. The process of adopting words from other languages into English, such
as "sushi" from Japanese or "pizza" from Italian.
Back-formation. Back-formation is a process in word formation where a new
word is created by removing an affix from an existing word. This often occurs
when a word is mistakenly assumed to be derived from another word with the
affix, leading to the creation of a new word by removing the affix. For example,
the word "editor" is often mistakenly assumed to be derived from "editorial,"
leading to the back-formation of the word "edit" from "editor." Back-formation can
also occur in other ways, such as creating the word "burgle" from "burglar" by
removing the suffix "-ar." The process of creating a new word by removing a
suffix from an existing word, such as "edit" from "editor" or "donate" from
"donation." In contrast, back-formation emerges naturally from the kind of
schemas we have just introduced. In such schemas a set of words is systematically
related to another set of words and given sufficient similarity to existing pairs, new
relationships can be established between existing and newly created words. Thus
given two related sets of words in a schema, we would naturally expect that the
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Function words in English language