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General characteristics of the structure in Modern English

In fact, sometimes the vowel sound is almost inaudible. For example, the
letter ‘a’ in English is often reduced to a muffled ‘uh’ sound. Grammarians call this
a ‘shwa’ or /ə/.
You can hear this ‘weak’ vowel sound at the start of the words ‘about’ and
‘attack’ and at the end of the word ‘banana’. They can sound like ‘ubout’, ‘uttack’
and ‘bananuh’ when spoken by a native English speaker. The article ‘a’ as a single
word is also unstressed and reduced in this way to a weak ‘uh’ sound.
For example: ‘Is there a shop nearby?’ sounds like ‘Is there-uh shop nearby?’
This shwa can also be heard in other instances, such as in the word ‘and’ when it is
used in a sentence. For example: ‘This book is for me and you’ can sound sound
like ‘This book is for me un(d) you’.
The reason for this weak stress pattern in English is to help the rhythm and
speed of speech . Using this weak ‘uh’ sound for the vowel ‘a’ helps the speaker get
ready for the next stressed syllable by keeping the mouth and lips in a neutral
position.
To pronounce the ‘a’ more clearly would require a greater opening of the
mouth, which would slow the speaker down.
As English is a stress-timed language , the regular stresses are vital for
the rhythm of the language , so the vowel sounds of unstressed words in English
often get ‘lost’.
In contrast, syllable-timed languages (such as Spanish) tend to work in the
opposite way, stressing the vowel sounds strongly, while the consonants get ‘lost’.
Conclusion on chapter I
In conclusion, the study of the phonological structure in Modern English
provides valuable insights into the sounds, syllables, and stress patterns that shape
the language. Through the exploration of phonemes, allophones, syllable structure,
and phonotactics, we have gained a deeper understanding of how sounds are
organized and combined in English.
One of the key findings is the identification of distinct phonemes that
differentiate meaning in Modern English. By analyzing minimal pairs and
21

Another 40% of the world’s languages use the subject-object-verb (or SOV)
order, i.e. “dogs cats chase.” Other words orders (VSO, VOS, OVS, and OSV) are
much less frequent. These asymmetries reveal a cross-linguistic preference for
subject-initial sentences and for the verb and the object to be close together.
Some languages, such as Hungarian and Russian, have rich case systems,
with nouns and pronouns taking different forms depending on their grammatical
function within the sentence. In these languages, word order is often more flexible,
as the case markers provide cues as to the grammatical function of each word.
Word order typology also reveals patterns in language change over time; for
example, many Indo-European languages have shifted from an SOV word order to
an SVO one due to contact with other languages [15, 311] .
Key theories and models of syntax
Several theories and models of syntax have been developed over the years.
One of the earliest and most influential was Transformational Grammar, developed
by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s and 1960s.
According to this theory, syntax operates by means of transformations that
take an underlying deep structure and produce a surface structure. The deep
structure corresponds to the semantic content of a sentence, while the surface
structure corresponds to its syntactic form.
In other words, Chomsky argued that the syntax we use is rooted deeply in the
meaning of what we are trying to say. Syntax, argues Chomsky, is a universal
phenomenon, and all languages share common elements of syntax. This means that
syntax and grammar are a part of our biology. This is as opposed to the idea that
syntax, and language generally, is purely rooted in culture and convention.
In recent years, there has been a move towards more usage-based models of
syntax, such as Construction Grammar and Cognitive Grammar. These theories
view syntax as a set of learned patterns that are used to construct sentences.
The Minimalist Program
28

CHAPTER I. PHONOLOGICAL STRUCTURE IN MODERN ENGLISH
1.1. Phonemes and Allophones
Whereas phonetics is the study of sounds and is concerned with the
production, audition and perception of of speech sounds (called phones),
phonology describes the way sounds function within a given language and operates
at the level of sound systems and abstract sound units. Knowing the sounds of a
language is only a small part of phonology.
This importance is shown by the fact that you can change one word into
another by simply changing one sound. Consider the differences between the
words time and dime. The words are identical except for the first sound. [t] and [d]
can therefore distinguish words, and are called contrasting sounds. They are
distinctive sounds in English, and all distinctive sounds are classified as phonemes.
Phonology deals with sound structure in individual languages: the way
distinctions in sound are used to differentiate linguistic items, and the ways in
which the sound structure of the ‘same’ element varies as a function of the other
sounds in its context. Phonology and phonetics both involve sound in natural
language, but differ in that phonetics deals with sounds from a language-
independent point of view, while phonology studies the ways in which they are
distributed and deployed within particular languages. Phonology originated with
the insight that much observable phonetic detail is irrelevant or predictable within
the system of a given language [2, 145] .
This led to the positing of phonemes as minimal contrastive sound units in
language, each composed (according to many writers) of a collection of distinctive
features of contrast. Later work showed that a focus on surface contrast ultimately
was misguided, and generative phonology replaced this with a conception of
phonology as an aspect of speakers' knowledge of linguistic structure. Important
research problems have involved the relation between phonological and phonetic
form; the mutual interaction of phonological regularities; the relation of
phonological structure to other components of grammar; and the appropriateness of
rules vs. constraints as formulations of phonological regularities. Phonology is
7

Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language and are the
building blocks of words. A single word can be composed of one or more
morphemes. Morphemes can be divided into two categories: free morphemes and
bound morphemes. Free morphemes are morphemes that can stand alone as words,
such as “dog”, “run”, or “tree”. Bound morphemes, on the other hand, cannot stand
alone as words, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words, such
as “un-” in “unhappy”, “-s” in “dogs”, or “-ness” in “happiness”.
Prefixes are bound morphemes that are added to the beginning of a word,
while suffixes are bound morphemes that are added to the end of a word.
Morphemes carry meaning, and the meaning of a word is determined by the
combination of its morphemes. For example, the prefix “un-” in “unhappy” negates
the meaning of the word “happy”, while the suffix “-ness” in “happiness” changes
the word from an adjective to a noun.
The combination of morphemes into larger structures creates complex words.
For example, the English word “reapproval” consists of three morphemes: “re-“,
“approve”, and “-al”. First, the prefix “re-“, which means “back” or “again”,
combines with the verb “approve”, yielding “reapprove”, which means “to approve
again”. Then, the nominalizing suffix “-al” combines with the verb “reapprove”,
turning it into the noun “reapproval”, which means “the act of approving again”.
This exemplifies how different combinations of morphemes can produce new
words [12, 94] .
Morphological processes
Morphological processes refer to the ways in which words are created,
changed, or combined in a language. Prefixation involves adding a prefix to the
beginning of a word in order to create a new word or change the meaning of an
existing word. For example, the prefix “un-” can be added to the word “happy” to
form the word “unhappy”, which conveys a negative meaning. Suffixation
involves adding a suffix to the end of a word in order to create a new word or
change the meaning of an existing word.
24

 English words ending in ‘ous’ with 4 syllables usually have their
stress on the second syllable (e.g. gre gar ious, a non ymous, su per fluous,
an dro gynous, car niv orous, tem pes tuous, lux ur ious, hil ar ious, con tin uous,
cons pic uous). There are some exceptions using different stressed syllables,
such as sacri leg ious, which stresses the 3rd syllable [8, 311] .
Words ending in ‘ous’ with 3 or more syllables do not always follow a set
stress pattern. Here are some common English words with 3 syllables ending in
‘ous’ and their stress placement:
Words ending in ‘ous’ with stress on first syllable
fab ulous, friv olous, glam orous, cal culus, du bious, en vious, scan dalous, ser iou
s, ten uous, chiv alrous, dan gerous, fur ious
Words ending in ‘ous’ with stress on second syllable
e nor mous, au da cious, fa ce tious, di sas trous, fic ti cious, hor ren dous, con ta gious,
am bit ious, cou ra geous
Stress can changing the meaning of a word
Remember, where we place the stress in English can change the meaning of
a word . This can lead to some funny misunderstandings – and some frustrating
conversations!
Words that have the same spelling but a different pronunciation and meaning
are called heteronyms . Here are a few examples of words where the stressed
syllable changes the meaning of the word:
 Object
The word ‘object’ is an example of an English word that can change meaning
depending on which syllable is stressed. When the word is pronounced ‘ ob ject’
(with a stress on the first syllable) the word is a noun meaning an ‘item’, ‘purpose’
or ‘person/thing that is the focus’ of a sentence.
For example:
o She handed the lady a rectangular ob ject made of metal
o He was the ob ject of the dog’s affection
o The ring was an ob ject of high value
16

This is to say, only specific exceptional words take those plural endings (e.g.
“children”, “oxen”). Unlike with “-es” and “-s”, the choice of “-ren” or “-en” is not
related to phonology, but determined by the particular word [13, 211] .
Morphological typology
Morphological typology is the study of the way different languages form
words. There are several different morphological types that have been identified in
the study of language, including isolating, fusional, and agglutinative languages.
Isolating languages are languages that express grammatical relationships
through separate words, rather than through inflections. In an isolating language,
words are not inflected for tense, number, gender, or other grammatical categories.
For example, in Chinese and English, each word typically represents a single
morpheme, and grammatical relationships are expressed through word order.
Fusional languages are languages that express multiple grammatical
categories through a single inflection. For example, in Polish, “kot” means “cat”
and “kotom” means “to (the) cats”. Thus, the suffix “-om” indicates both that the
noun is plural and that it is a recipient of an action. In a fusional language, a single
form may contain information about multiple grammatical categories.
Agglutinative languages are languages in which each morpheme represents a
single grammatical category, and these morphemes are combined to form long
words. For example, in Hungarian, the word for “person” is “ember,” plurality is
expressed with the suffix “-ek”, and recipients are marked with “-nek”. The work
“embereknek” contains all these parts and means “to (the) people”.
Sentence structure: Phrases, clauses, arguments, and modifiers
Sentence structure refers to the arrangement of words and phrases that form a
complete sentence in a language. Phrases are the building blocks of sentences. A
phrase is a group of words that work together to convey a single idea, but do not
form a complete sentence on their own.
There are several types of phrases, including noun phrases (e.g. “the
morning”), prepositional phrases (e.g. “in the morning”), and verb phrases (e.g.
26

phonology, morphology, and syntax. By delving into these linguistic components,
we gain valuable insights into the structure and organization of Modern English,
enhancing our language proficiency and facilitating effective communication.
The actuality of the course work : It is important to remark that E ffective
oral communication is considered to be one of the leading skills that an employee
needs to possess at workplace. Also, when it comes to presentation skills, it adds
value if the presenter complements the presentation in English language. Students
persistently utilize oral communications investigate, appreciate, and convey
thoughts and emotions from youth into adulthood.
The aims of the course work : This paper is also addressed to revise the
different types of assessment of general characteristics of the structure in Modern
English and which one is the most recommended or appropriate for teenage
students.
The subject of the course work is ways of assessment of general
characteristics of the structure in Modern English . The need to study a language
stem from the flexibility, efficiency, usefulness, universality, and teachability of
the language.
The object of the course work is to explore the different aspects of the
assessment of general characteristics of the structure in Modern English .
The practical value of the course work . The significance of general
characteristics of the structure in Modern English cannot be over emphasized. The
learning of English Language has increased because people have come to the
realization that English is as important as the very breath we take in. Many
employers actually measure the competence of job application in many of these
skills before making offers of employment.
The theoretical value of the course work is to allow the opportunity to
search, find, and use various sources in speaking. This study also purposes to
investigate the perceptions of students regarding the use of communicative skills in
the learning process.
5

The Minimalist Program (MP) is a framework within generative linguistics,
developed by Noam Chomsky, that aims to explain the structure of natural
language syntax in the simplest possible terms.
It builds on the foundations of Chomsky’s earlier theories, such as
Transformational Grammar, but takes a more minimalist approach by reducing the
number of rules and principles involved in language syntax.
The central idea of the MP is that the ability to acquire and use language is
based on a biologically determined capacity, referred to as the Universal Grammar
(UG), which is common to all humans. One of the key features of the MP is its
focus on economy principles, which seek to minimize the complexity of linguistic
structures and to explain why certain structures are preferred over others.
Overall, Chomsky’s Minimalist Program provides a powerful framework for
understanding the nature of human language and the mechanisms that govern it.
While the MP has been subject to much critique and revision over the years, it
continues to play a major role in shaping the direction of linguistic research and in
shaping our understanding of the human capacity for language.
Construction Grammar and Cognitive Grammar
While Chomsky’s Minimalist Program has been a dominant theory in the
field of syntax for several decades, there are several alternative theories that have
emerged in recent years that offer different perspectives on how syntax relates to
other aspects of language.
Construction Grammar is one such alternative that has gained a significant
following in recent years. Unlike Chomsky’s Minimalist Program, which focuses
on abstract rules and principles, Construction Grammar posits that syntax is rooted
in specific examples of language use.
In other words, Construction Grammar claims that syntax is learned through
exposure to a large number of concrete examples of language use, and that these
examples can be represented as “constructions” that embody specific patterns of
meaning and form.
29

Fantastic, energy, expensive,
aggresion, wonderful, laughable, badminton, celery, temptation,
rampoline, industry, dintinguished, financial, however, tremendous, library
Four syllable words stress patterns:
Understanding, indecisive, conversation, realistic, moisturising, American,
psychology, independence, entrepreneur, transformation, fascinating, comfortable
Five syllable words stress patterns:
Uncon troll able, inspir at ional, misunder stand ing, conver sat ional, o pin ionated,
bio log ical, alpha bet ical, subordi nat ion, re fri gerator, hab erdashery, hospi tal ity
Six syllable words stress patterns:
Responsi bil ity, idiosyn crat ic, invisi bil ity, capitali sat ion, dis crim inatory or
discrimi nat ory, antibac ter ial, superi or ity, autobi og raphy, ma ter ialism, biodi ver sity,
criminalis at ion, i mag inatively,
Seven syllable words stress patterns:
Industriali sat ion, multi cul turalism, interdisci plin ary, radioact iv ity,
uni den tifiable, environ men talism, individu al ity, vege tar ianism, unsatis fac torily,
electro card iogram
Syllables and Stress Patterns in English Speech
Using clear syllables and stress patterns is an important part of speech [7, 57] .
The correct word stress in English is crucial for understanding a word quickly and
accurately.
Even if you cannot hear a word well and are not familiar with the context, you
can often still work out what the word is, simply from listening to which syllable is
stressed.
In the same way, if a learner pronounces a word differently from the accepted
norm, it can be hard for a native speaker to understand the word. The word or
sentence might be grammatically correct, but if they have used the wrong (or an
unexpected) stress pattern or the wrong stressed syllables, it could make it
unintelligible to a native.
14

as a definitive list of phonemes because of accents, dialects and the evolution of
language itself. Therefore you may discover lists with more or less than these 44
sounds. The English alphabet has 26 letters, made up of consonants and vowels.
There are five vowels (a,e,i,,o,u) and the rest are all consonants.
In English, pronunciation of words centres upon syllables: a syllable is a unit
of pronunciation which has one vowel sound, with or without surrounding
consonants, forming the whole or a part of a word. For example, there are two
syllables in wa/ter and three in in/fer/no.
The sounds of spoken language are known as phonemes. Thus, /water/ has
two syllables but four phonemes: w/a/t/er; /inferno/ has three syllables but seven
phonemes: i/n/f/e/r/n/o. Do not be fooled into thinking that the each letter has a
corresponding phoneme, as in these two examples. A word like /tough/ has two
syllables: t/ough and two phonemes: t/ough. In English, the written equivalent of
sounds or phonemes are known as graphemes, and the English alphabet made up of
the 26 letters is called the orthographic alphabet. In a language such as English, not
all words have a phoneme/grapheme match. For example, the words bough,
through and trough all end –ough but each is pronounced differently. English is
thus classified as a semi-phonetic language: that is, sometimes graphemes
correspond to phonemes, and sometimes they do not.
1.2. Syllable Structure and Stress Patterns
Syllables and stress are two of the main areas of spoken language.
Pronouncing words with the stress on the correct syllables will help you improve
your spoken English, make your sentences easier to understand and help you sound
more like a native speaker .
English syllables are stress-timed. English is classed as a ‘stress-based’
language, which means the meanings of words can be altered significantly by a
change in word stress and sentence stress. This is why it is important to learn how
to use word stress in English and develop an understanding of sentence stress and
English stress patterns.
Syllables
11

THE LIST OF USED LITERATURE
1. Mirziyoyev Sh.M. Decree of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan
Mirziyoyev Sh.M. “On measures to further improve foreign language
learning system” from December 10, 2019, - 4 p.
2. "A Course in Phonetics" by Peter Ladefoged -145 p.
3. "A Student's Introduction to English Grammar" by Rodney Huddleston and
Geoffrey K. Pullum -211 p.
4. "An Introduction to English Morphology" by Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy -
411 p.
5. "English Phonetics and Phonology: An Introduction" by Philip Carr -187 p.
6. "English Phonology: An Introduction" by Heinz J. Giegerich -134 p.
7. "English Syntax: An Introduction" by Andrew Radford -57 p.
8. "English Words: Structure, History, Usage" by Francis Katamba -311 p.
9. "Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts" by R.L. Trask -111 p.
10. "Language Files: Materials for an Introduction to Language and Linguistics"
edited by Vedrana Mihalicek and Christin Wilson -99 p.
11. "Morphology: The Descriptive Analysis of Words" by Martin Haspelmath
and Andrea Sims – 45 p.
12. "Syntax: A Generative Introduction" by Andrew Carnie -94 p.
13. "The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language" edited by David
Crystal -211 p.
14. "The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language" by Rodney Huddleston
and Geoffrey K. Pullum -145 p.
15. "The Handbook of English Linguistics" edited by Bas Aarts and April
McMahon – 311 p.
16. "The Sounds of the World's Languages" edited by Peter Ladefoged and Ian
Maddieson -64 p.
34

The knowledge of the morphological and syntactic structure in Modern
English has practical applications in various domains. Language learners can
utilize this knowledge to enhance their vocabulary, sentence construction, and
overall proficiency in English. Educators can employ this understanding to develop
effective teaching materials and methodologies. Researchers can delve deeper into
the mechanisms and patterns of English morphology and syntax, contributing to
the field of linguistics.
In conclusion, the study of the morphological and syntactic structure in
Modern English is crucial in comprehending the formation, organization, and
interpretation of words and sentences. It provides us with the tools to analyze
language structure, understand grammatical relationships, and communicate
effectively in written and spoken English.
31

contrastive distribution, we have observed the importance of phonemic distinctions
in conveying semantic information. Additionally, the concept of allophones has
illustrated how phonemes can have variant pronunciations in specific phonetic
contexts, contributing to the richness and variability of English pronunciation.
The examination of syllable structure and stress patterns has shed light on the
rhythmic and accentual features of Modern English. Understanding the
components of a syllable, such as onset, nucleus, and coda, has allowed us to
analyze the organization of sounds within words. Furthermore, the study of stress
patterns has revealed the prominence of certain syllables in words and their impact
on word pronunciation and rhythm in English.
22

language learners gain a solid foundation for both theoretical and practical
applications.
In the realm of phonology, the study of the general characteristics of Modern
English focuses on the analysis of speech sounds, their organization into
phonemes, and the rules governing their pronunciation and distribution. This
includes examining the phonetic inventory, phonotactics, stress patterns, and
intonation patterns that shape English speech. By understanding these phonological
features, individuals can improve their pronunciation, recognize speech patterns,
and enhance their overall oral communication skills.
The study of morphology in Modern English explores how words are formed
and structured. This involves analyzing the internal structure of words, including
morphemes - the smallest units of meaning. By examining processes such as
affixation, compounding, and conversion, researchers and language learners gain
insights into how new words are created and how existing words are modified.
Additionally, the study of derivational and inflectional morphemes reveals the
grammatical and semantic information conveyed by these morphological elements,
contributing to a deeper understanding of word meaning and word formation in
English.
Syntactic analysis focuses on the rules and principles governing the
arrangement of words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences in
Modern English. It involves studying the hierarchical structure of sentences,
constituent order, phrase structure rules, syntactic operations, and the role of
grammatical categories and markers. A thorough understanding of syntactic
structure enables individuals to construct coherent and meaningful sentences,
identify grammatical relationships, and comprehend the nuances of sentence
interpretation.
Overall, the study of the general characteristics of the structure in Modern
English provides a comprehensive framework for analyzing and understanding the
fundamental elements of the language. It equips language learners, educators, and
researchers with the necessary tools to navigate the complexities of English
4

o I’d like to pre sent my research on the breeding habits of frogs
o They pre sent ed the glittering trophy to the winner
o She was pre sent ed with the Oscar
o This new situation pre sents a problem
 Project
Another example of an English word changing meaning depending on where
you place the stress is the word ‘project’. This can be the noun when the stressed
syllable is at the start – ‘ pro ject’ (a task).
For example:

o They started work on the research pro ject immediately
o She looked forward to her next pro ject – repainting the house
o He enjoyed writing restaurant reviews – it was his current
passion pro ject
However, this word becomes a verb when the stressed syllables moves to the
end – ‘to pro ject ‘ (to throw/launch, to protrude, to cause an image to appear on a
surface, or to come across/make an impression).
For example:
o The object was pro ject ed into the air at high velocity
o The film will be pro ject ed onto the screen
o The chimney pro jects 3 metres from the roof
o She always pro jects herself with confidence
Stress patterns in compound words
Compound words are single words made up of two distinct parts. They are
sometimes hyphenated. Here are examples of stress patterns in compound words in
English:
 Compound nouns have the stress on the first part:
e.g. sugar cane, beet root, hen house, trip wire, light house, news paper, port hole,
round about, will power
18

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………..3
CHAPTER I. PHONOLOGICAL STRUCTURE IN MODERN ENGLISH .... .7
1.1. Phonemes and Allophones …………………………………………………7
1.2. Syllable Structure and Stress Patterns .............................................................. 11
Conclusion on chapter I ……………………………………………………22
CHAPTER II. MORPHOLOGICAL AND SYNTACTIC STRUCTURE IN
MODERN ENGLISH …………………………………………………………..23
2.1. Morphological Structure ………………………………………………………23
2.2. Syntactic Structure………… ........................................................................... 2 7
Conclusion on chapter II ………………………………………………….…….30
CONCLUSION …………………………………….………………...………….32
THE LIST OF USED LITERATURE ……………….……………...…………34
2

For example, the suffix “-ness” can be added to the word “happy” to form the
word “happiness”, which conveys a noun form of the adjective “happy”. Infixation
involves adding a morpheme to the middle of a word in order to create a new word
or change the meaning of an existing word. Infixation is relatively rare compared
to prefixation and suffixation, but it is found in some languages, such as Tagalog
and Malay, or Khmer. For example, in Khmer, the agentive infix “-m-” turns
“cam” (“to watch”) into “cmam” (“watchman”).
Other morphological processes include zero-derivation, compounding, and
reduplication. Zero-derivation is a process whereby a word changes its part of
speech without any change in form, as in the derivation of the verb “to google”
from the noun “Google”. Compounding involves combining two or more existing
words into a single unit; for example, “sunshine” is composed of “sun” and
“shine”. Reduplication is another process that creates new forms by repeating an
word or a part of an existing word. For instance, in Motu, “mahuta” means “to
sleep” and “mahutamahuta” means “to sleep constantly”.
Allomorphy and allomorph selection
Allomorphy is a term used in morphology to describe the phenomenon where
a single morpheme can have multiple forms, each with a different phonological
shape. Allomorphs are different forms of the same morpheme that occur in
different contexts.
For example, the allomorphs of the English plural suffix include “-s” (as in
“cats”), “-es” (as in “masses”), “-ren” (as in “children”), and “-en” (as in “oxen”).
Allomorph selection might be conditioned by various aspects of the language’s
grammar, including phonological or lexical factors.
The choice between “-s” and “-es” is phonological in nature. The allomorph
“-es” is used when the word ends in a sibilant (“hissy”) sound, including “s”, “z”,
“ch”, “j”, “sh”, and “zh”, e.g. “kisses”, “churches”, or “lashes”. The allomorph “-s”
is used after all other sounds. The choice of “-ren” and “-en” is lexical.
25

Constructions can be seen as the basic units of language, and all aspects of
language, including syntax, semantics, and pragmatics as interconnected.
Cognitive Grammar is another theoretical alternative to the Chomskyan view
of syntax. This theory views language as a cognitive process that reflects the
underlying structure of thought.
According to Cognitive Grammar, linguistic units such as words and phrases
are not isolated entities, but are integrated into complex structures that reflect the
way the speaker thinks about a particular situation [16, 64] .
Conclusion on chapter II
In conclusion, the exploration of the morphological and syntactic structure in
Modern English has provided us with a comprehensive understanding of how
words and sentences are formed and organized in the language. By examining the
morphological structure, we have gained insights into the formation and
composition of words through processes such as affixation, compounding, and
conversion.
The analysis of morphemes, including derivational and inflectional
morphemes, has highlighted the role they play in creating meaning and conveying
grammatical information. The study of morphological patterns and irregularities
has demonstrated the complexity and richness of English word formation, allowing
for a deeper appreciation of its lexicon.
Furthermore, the investigation of the syntactic structure has revealed the rules
and principles that govern the arrangement of words and phrases to form
grammatically correct sentences. By understanding the role of constituents such as
subjects, predicates, objects, and modifiers, we have gained insights into sentence
structure and the hierarchical organization of syntactic elements.
The study of syntactic operations, such as phrase structure rules and
transformations, has provided a framework for analyzing sentence formation and
syntactic relationships. Additionally, the examination of grammatical categories
and markers, including tense, aspect, mood, number, gender, and case, has
demonstrated their influence on sentence structure and meaning.
30

Learning a language is all about communication and being able to make
yourself understood. This is why syllables and stress patterns in spoken English are
so important.
English Word Stress Rules
Here are some general rules about word stress in English:
 Only vowel sounds are stressed (a,e,i,o,u).
 A general rule is that for two syllable
words, nouns and adjectives have the stress on the first syllable,
but verbs have the stress on the second syllable.
For example: ta ble (noun), spec ial (adjective), de mand (verb).
 Words ending in ‘ic’, ‘tion’ or ‘sion’ always place their stress on the
penultimate (second to last) syllable. (e.g. super son ic, At lan tic, dedi ca tion,
at ten tion, transfor ma tion, compre hen sion).
 Words ending in ‘cy’, ‘ty’, ‘gy’ and ‘al’ always place their stress on
the third from last syllable. (e.g. acc oun tancy, sin cer ity, chro nol ogy,
inspi rat ional, hypo the tical).
 Words ending in ‘sm’ with 3 or fewer syllables have their stress on the
first syllable (e.g. pri sm, schi sm, aut ism, bot ulism, sar casm) unless they are
extensions of a stem word. This is often the case with words ending ‘ism’.
 Words ending in ‘ism’ tend to follow the stress rule for the stem word
with the ‘ism’ tagged onto the end (e.g. can nibal = can nibalism, ex pre ssion =
ex pre ssionism, fem inist = fem inism, oppor tun ist = oppor tun ism).
 Words ending in ‘sm’ with 4 or more syllables tend to have their
stress on the second syllable (e.g. en thu siasm, me ta bolism).
Words ending in ‘ous’
 Words ending in ‘ous’ with 2 syllables have their stress on the first
syllable
(e.g. mon strous, pi ous, an xious, pom pous, zeal ous, con scious, fa mous, gra cio
us, gor geous, jea lous, joy ous).
15

The English language is heavily stressed with each word divided into
syllables. Here are some examples of English words with different numbers of
syllables [5, 187] . These sets of words are followed by a series of examples using
the correct stress placement:
Words with one syllable
The, cold, quite, bed, add, start, hope, clean, trade, green, chair, cat, sign, pea,
wish, drive, plant, square, give, wait, law, off, hear, trough, eat, rough, trout, shine,
watch, for , out, catch, flight, rain, speech, crab, lion, knot, fixed, slope, reach,
trade, light, moon, wash, trend, balm, walk, sew, joke, tribe, brooch
Words with two syllables
Party, special, today, quiet, orange, partner, table, demand, power,
retrieve, doctor , engine, diet, transcribe, contain, cabbage , mountain, humour,
defend, spatial, special, greedy, exchange, manage, carpet, although, trophy, insist,
tremble, balloon, healthy, shower, verbal, business, mortgage, fashion, hover,
butcher, magic, broken
Words with three syllables
Fantastic, energy, expensive, wonderful, laughable, badminton, idiot, celery,
beautiful, aggression, computer, journalist, horrify , gravity, temptation, dieting,
trampoline, industry, financial , distinguished, however, tremendous, justify,
inflation, creation, injustice, energise, glittering, tangible, mentalise, laughable,
dialect, crustacean, origin
Words with four syllables
Understanding, indecisive, conversation , realistic, moisturising, American ,
psychology, gregarious, independence, affordable, memorandum, controversial,
superior, gymnasium, entrepreneur, traditional, transformation, remembering ,
establishment, vegetation, affectionate, acupuncture, invertebrate
Words with five syllables
Organisation, uncontrollable, inspirational, misunderstanding , conversational,
opinionated, biological, subordination, determination, sensationalist, refrigerator,
12

“ate breakfast in the morning”). Noun phrases, for example, are made up of a noun
and any of the adjectives and determiners associated with it.
Clauses are a step up in complexity from phrases. A clause is a group of
words that contains a subject and a predicate. There are two types of clauses:
independent clauses and dependent clauses. Independent clauses, such as “I ran”,
can stand alone as a complete sentence, while dependent clauses, such as “if I ran”,
cannot.
Arguments and modifiers are important concepts in the analysis of phrasal
structure. Arguments are phrases required by other words to form a grammatical
sentence. For example, “the” never appears by itself; it needs to combine with a
noun to form a noun phrase, e.g. “the morning”.
Thus, “morning” is an argument of “the”. A modifier is a word or phrase that
adds information to another word or phrase in a sentence, clarifying or refining its
meaning. Modifiers can be adjectives (e.g. “tall”), adverbs (e.g. “quickly”),
prepositional phrases (e.g. “in the garden”), and relative clauses (e.g. “which I
bought yesterday”).
Word order typology
Word order typology is the study of the ways in which different languages
arrange the elements of a sentence, such as subjects, verbs, and objects. Some
languages have a fixed word order, such as English or Chinese, where the subject-
verb-object (SVO) order is the norm.
2.2. Syntactic Structure
Other languages, such as Japanese, Polish, or Latin, have a more flexible
word order, with the subject, verb, and object able to appear in different positions
within the sentence [14, 145] .
There are interesting asymmetries between different languages when it comes
to word order. Around 40% of the world’s language use subject-verb-object (or
SVO) as their basic word order. English belongs in this group, as this is the word
order in basic sentences such as “dogs chase cats”.
27

CHAPTER II. MORPHOLOGICAL AND SYNTACTIC STRUCTURE IN
MODERN ENGLISH
2.1. Morphological Structure
Morphology and syntax are two branches of linguistic study that focus on the
structure of words and sentences, respectively. Morphology is the study of the
internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Words in a
language can be composed of smaller units called morphemes, which are the
smallest units of meaning in a language. For example, the word “unhappiest” is
composed of three morphemes: “un-“, “happy-“, and “-est” [11, 45 .
Syntax, on the other hand, is the study of the rules that govern the way words
are put together to form sentences. Syntax is concerned with how words are
combined to form phrases and clauses, and how these phrases and clauses are
combined to form complete sentences.
One of the key concepts in syntax is the idea of a sentence being composed of
a set of constituents, or building blocks, that are combined according to a set of
rules. These rules specify the order in which the constituents appear in a sentence,
as well as the relationships between them. For example, in English, the subject
typically appears before the verb in a sentence, and the object typically appears
after the verb.
The distinction between morphology and syntax can be seen in the way
different languages express complex meanings. For example, Spanish uses suffixes
such as “-é”, “-ás”, or “-á” to indicate future tense; “comer” means “to eat”;
“comeré” means “I will eat.” This is an example of using a morphological process
to convey a complex meaning. On the other hand, English uses a separate word
“will” for the same purpose.
Thus, English expresses the future tense using syntactic means. Both
morphology and syntax involve rules for combining elements within a language,
but different languages use different means of expressing the same function (e.g.
future tense).
Morphemes: The building blocks of words
23

haberdashery, hospitality, conservatory, procrastination, disobedience, electrifying,
consideration, apologetic, particularly, compartmentalise, hypochondria
Words with six syllables
Responsibility, idiosyncratic, discriminatory, invisibility, capitalisation,
extraterrestrial, reliability, autobiography, unimaginable, characteristically,
superiority, antibacterial, disciplinarian, environmentalist, materialism,
biodiversity, criminalisation, imaginatively, disobediently
Words with seven syllables
Industrialisation, multiculturalism, interdisciplinary, radioactivity,
unidentifiable, environmentalism, individuality, vegetarianism ,
unsatisfactorily, electrocardiogram
English Stress Patterns
When thinking about syllables and stress in English, usually we find that one
syllable of a word is stressed more than the others. There are always one or more
stressed syllables within a word and this special stress placement helps words and
sentences develop their own rhythm .
Syllables and stress patterns in English help to create
the sounds , pronunciations and rhythms that we hear all around us.
Word Stress in English
We come to recognise these English syllables and stress patterns in
conversations in real life interactions and on the radio and television . Using the
correct stressed syllables within a word is an important part of speech and
understanding.
Pronouncing words with the right word stress will make your language sound
more natural to native speakers [6, 134] . Here are some words from the previous
lists with the stressed syllable in bold:
Two syllable words stress patterns:
Qui et, par ty, spe cial, to day , or ange, part ner, ta ble, de mand , po wer,
re trieve , en gine, di et, gree dy, ex change , man age, car pet, al though, re lax, com fort
Three syllable words stress patterns:
13

The task of investigation . We have set ourselves to achieve the following
tasks forward:
-this study proposes some strategies and techniques in which skills such as
listening and speaking will be developed,
-to demonstrate that students speaking ability will be significantly improved.
The scientific novelty of the course work lies in the study and analyses
importance of assessment of general characteristics of the structure in Modern
English in English.
The structure of the course work . The course work consists of introduction,
2 chapters, conclusion and list of used literature as well as the internet recourses.
Introduction has general information about the problem, reveals the aim, duties,
methods of the work. Each chapter consists of smaller parts and paragraphs and
contains important information and salvation of the pointed duties of the work.
6

systems. Moreover, new word-forms can be stored in both short-term and long-
term memory. As a result, phonology must confront the conversion of
representations (i.e., data structures) between three broad neural systems: memory,
action, and perception. Each system has further sub-systems that we ignore here.
The basic proposal is that this is done through the use of phonological primitives
(features), which are temporally organized (chunked, grouped, coordinated) on at
least two fundamental time scales: the feature or segment and the syllable.
The reasoning for this change can be found through the use of phonology,
which is the study of speech sounds and how they change depending on certain
situations or placements in syllables, words, and sentences. You may have also
heard of something called phonetics, which is the study of speech sounds as they
stand in isolation. The key difference between phonetics and phonology is that
phonology is more focused on how speech sounds change and behave when in a
syllable, word, or sentence, as opposed to when spoken in isolation. Phonology is
the study of the patterns of sounds in a language and across languages. Put more
formally, phonology is the study of the categorical organisation of speech sounds
in languages; how speech sounds are organised in the mind and used to convey
meaning.
In this section of the website, we will describe the most common
phonological processes and introduce the concepts of underlying representations
for sounds versus what is actually produced, the surface form. Phonology can be
related to many linguistic disciplines, including psycholinguistics, cognitive
science, sociolinguistics and language acquisition. Principles of phonology can
also be applied to treatments of speech pathologies and innovations in technology.
In terms of speech recognition, systems can be designed to translate spoken data
into text.
In this way, computers process the language like our brains do. The same
processes that occur in the mind of a human when producing and receiving
language occur in machines. Phonemes mean sounds. Each IPA (International
9

typically defined as “the study of speech sounds of a language or languages, and
the laws governing them,”1 particularly the laws governing the composition and
combination of speech sounds in language.
This definition reflects a segmental bias in the historical development of the
field and we can offer a more general definition: the study of the knowledge and
representations of the sound system of human languages. From a neurobiological
or cognitive neuroscience perspective, one can consider phonology as the study of
the mental model for human speech. In this brief review, we restrict ourselves to
spoken language, although analogous concerns hold for signed language.
Moreover, we limit the discussion to what we consider the most important
aspects of phonology.
These include:
(i) the mappings between three systems of representation: action, perception,
and long-term memory;
(ii) the fundamental components of speech sounds (i.e., distinctive features);
(iii) the laws of combinations of speech sounds, both adjacent and long-
distance;
(iv) the chunking of speech sounds into larger units, especially syllables.
To begin, consider the word-form “glark.” Given this string of letters, native
speakers of English will have an idea of how to pronounce it and what it would
sound like if another person said it. They would have little idea, if any, of what it
means. The meaning of a word is arbitrary given its form, and it could mean
something else entirely. Consequently, we can have very specific knowledge about
a word’s form from a single presentation and can recognize and repeat such word-
forms without much effort, all without knowing its meaning [3, 211] .
Phonology studies the regularities of form (i.e., “rules without meaning”) and
the laws of combination for speech sounds and their sub-parts. Any account needs
to address the fact that speech is produced by one anatomical system (the mouth)
and perceived with another (the auditory system). Our ability to repeat new word-
forms, such as “glark,” is evidence that people effortlessly map between these two
8

INTRODUCTION
Learning foreign languages in Uzbekistan has become very important since
the first days of the Independence of our country which pays much attention to the
rising of education level of people, their intellectual growth. Before this deree The
President о f Uzbekist а n Mirziyoyev Sh.M signed the Decree №2909 “On
measures for further development of the Higher education system” on April 21,
2017. This decree plays as the basic foundation to the last one.
The Decree № 5117 of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan
Sh.M.Mirziyoyev “On measures to raise to a qualitatively new level the activities
aimed at popularizing the study of foreign languages in the Republic of
Uzbekistan” dated on May 19, 2021 represents to develop foreign language
teaching, the issue of improving the quality of education in this area, attracting
qualified teachers to the field and increasing the interest of the population in
learning foreign languages is considered as a priority area of educational policy”.
The Decree considers “the creation of the necessary conditions for popularizing the
study of foreign languages among the population and mastering them perfectly, the
coordination of the implementation of internationally recognized programs and
textbooks on teaching foreign languages at all stages of education, as well as the
development of modern teaching skills among teachers” [1, 4].
The study of the general characteristics of the structure in Modern English is a
fundamental aspect of linguistics that aims to understand how the English language
is structured and organized. It encompasses the examination of phonological,
morphological, and syntactic features, providing insights into the rules and patterns
that govern the formation and arrangement of sounds, words, and sentences in
English.
Understanding the general characteristics of the structure in Modern English
is essential for effective communication and language comprehension. It allows us
to decode and produce language accurately, recognize grammatical patterns, and
interpret meaning in diverse contexts. By exploring the phonological,
morphological, and syntactic aspects of the language, linguists, educators, and
3

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the study of the general characteristics of the structure in
Modern English encompasses various aspects of language, including its
phonological, morphological, and syntactic features. Through the exploration of
these components, we have gained a comprehensive understanding of how Modern
English is structured and organized, facilitating effective communication and
language comprehension.
In terms of phonological structure, we have examined the sounds,
phonotactics, and prosodic patterns that shape the language. By analyzing
phonemes, allophones, syllable structure, and stress patterns, we have uncovered
the phonetic and rhythmic features of English. This knowledge enhances our
ability to pronounce words accurately, recognize speech patterns, and comprehend
spoken English.
The morphological structure of Modern English has provided insights into the
formation and composition of words. By studying morphemes, their classifications,
and their roles in word formation, we have gained an understanding of how
English words are constructed. The exploration of derivational and inflectional
morphemes, as well as processes such as affixation, compounding, and conversion,
has enriched our knowledge of word formation and the lexicon of the language.
The syntactic structure of Modern English has shed light on the arrangement
of words and phrases to create meaningful sentences. Through the analysis of
constituents, phrase structure, and syntactic operations, we have grasped the rules
and principles that govern sentence formation. Additionally, the examination of
grammatical categories and markers has emphasized their role in conveying
meaning and contributing to sentence structure.
The study of the general characteristics of the structure in Modern English has
practical implications across various domains. Language learners can utilize this
knowledge to improve their pronunciation, expand their vocabulary, and construct
grammatically correct sentences. Educators can employ this understanding to
develop effective language teaching materials and methodologies. Researchers can
32

delve deeper into the intricacies of English structure, contributing to linguistic
theories and advancements.
Moreover, understanding the general characteristics of the structure in
Modern English enhances our overall language proficiency. It allows us to
communicate effectively, both orally and in writing, and interpret language in
diverse contexts. By recognizing the underlying systems and patterns of English,
we can navigate its intricacies and comprehend language usage more accurately.
In conclusion, the study of the general characteristics of the structure in
Modern English provides us with a comprehensive understanding of how the
language is structured and organized. Through the examination of phonological,
morphological, and syntactic features, we acquire the tools to decode and produce
language effectively, fostering successful communication and linguistic
competence.
33

Phonetic Alphabet) represents a phoneme. /k/ and /g/ are two phonemes that
change the meaning of words like [curl] and [girl], right?
Now, English phonemes fall into two broad categories:
Consonants and vowels. The bad news is that each consonant and vowel has
its own IPA symbol. For example, there is phoneme [k?] in kill and [k] in skill.
The latter is unaspirated, while the former is (aspirated). You go ahead and
pronounce the phoneme /k/ in [skill] in the same way you would pronounce it in
[Kill]. It sounds a bit strange doesn’t it? The other bad news is that we do not
always pronounce those phonemes exactly in the same way. It depends on the
surrounding phonemes, meaning, rhythm and speed etc. You must know how the
phonemes blend and assimilate to speak English fluently and naturally. You need
to understand what happens to phonemes during natural speech. If you do that, you
will no longer need subtitles when you watch American or British movies
(assuming you have a reasonably good vocabulary). There is no way for anyone to
cover every nuance in speech. I am very confident though the list and categories I
have included are quite comprehensive. Based on my experience, there are 5
important categories or keys, as I call them, that you need to be aware of when
learning English [4, 411] .
The 5 categories are as follows:
1-Consonants
2-Vowels
3-The schwa sound 4-The [t] pronunciation
5-Connected speech
So basically, you're not just about to learn what phonemes are, you're about to
learn how they deal and co-exist with each other. Despite there being just 26 letters
in the English language there are approximately 44 unique sounds, also known as
phonemes. The 44 sounds help distinguish one word or meaning from another.
Various letters and letter combinations known as graphemes are used to represent
the sounds. The 44 English sounds fall into two categories: consonants and vowels.
Below is a list of the 44 phonemes along with their International Phonetic
Alphabet symbols and some examples of their use. Note that there is no such thing
10

o The ob ject of the interview was to find the best candidate for
the job
o The ob ject was small and shiny – it could have been a diamond
ring!
But if the same word is pronounced ‘ob ject ‘ (with the stress on the second
syllable) the word is now a verb , meaning ‘to disagree with’ something or
someone.
For example:
o They ob ject to his constant lateness
o The man ob ject ed to the size of his neighbour’s new
conservatory
o She strongly ob jects to being called a liar
o We ob ject to the buildings being demolished
o No one ob ject ed to the proposal for more traffic lights
 Present
When the word ‘present’ is pronounced ‘ pre sent’ (with the stress on the first
syllable) the word is a noun meaning ‘a gift’ or an adjective meaning ‘here / not
absent’.
For example:
o She handed him a beautifully wrapped pre sent
o The book was a pre sent from their grandparents
o Everyone was pre sent at the meeting
But when the word is pronounced ‘pre sent’ (with the stress on the second
syllable) the word is now a verb meaning ‘to introduce’ something or someone, ‘to
show’ or ‘to bring to one’s attention’. It can also be used when talking about
presenting a TV or radio show (i.e. to be a ‘presenter’).
For example:

o May I pre sent Charlotte Smith, our new store manager
o Bruce Forsyth used to pre sent ‘Strictly Come Dancing’
17

 Compound adjectives and verbs have the stress on the second part:
e.g. whole hearted , green- fingered , old- fashioned , to under stand , to in form , to
short- change , to over take
English sentence stress
Once you understand word stress in English, you need to think about sentence
stress . This means deciding which words to stress as part of the sentence as a
whole. Stressed syllables can create a distinctive, rhythmic pattern within a
sentence. This is how English stress patterns are related to the rhythm of
English and help create the ‘music’ of a language [9, 111] .
English speakers tend to put stress on the most important words in a sentence
in order to draw the listener’s attention to them. The most important words are the
words that are necessary for the meaning of the sentence. Sentence stress is just as
important as word stress for clarity. For example:
‘The cat sat on the mat while eating its favourite food’
The most important words here are: ‘cat’, ‘mat’, ‘eating’ and ‘food’. Even if
you only hear those words, you would still be able to understand what is happening
in the sentence simply from hearing which words are stressed.
Clearly, it is the nouns and verbs that are the most important parts of the
sentence , as these are the ‘content words’ that help with meaning. Content words
are usually stressed.

The adjectives , adverbs and conjunctions all add flavour to the sentence, but
they are not absolutely necessary to understand the meaning. These ‘helper’ words
are usually unstressed [10, 99] .
In our example sentence: ‘The cat sat on the mat while eating its
favourite food’ , we have already used the word ‘cat’ so we do not need to
emphasise the word ‘its’ (or ‘he/she’ if you want to give the cat a gender), because
we already know who is eating the food (i.e. the cat).
English word stress within a sentence
Stress patterns affect words and sentences in English.
19

The stress on a word (the word stress) is the emphasis placed on that word. In
the sentence below, “I never said he ate your chocolate”, the stressed word will
change the meaning or implication of the sentence:
Stressing the first word ‘I’ implies that I (the speaker) never said it. It might
be true or it might not be true – the point is, I never said it – someone else did.
Stressing the second word ‘never’ emphasises that I never said it. There was
never an occasion when I said it (whether it is true or not).
Stressing the third word ‘said’ means that I never said it. He might have eaten
your chocolate, but I didn’t say it. I might have thought it, but I never said it out
loud (I may only have implied it).
Stressing the fourth word ‘he’ means I didn’t say it was him that ate your
chocolate, only that someone did.
Stressing the fifth word ‘ate’ means I didn’t say he had eaten it. Perhaps he
took it and threw it away or did something else with it.
Stressing the sixth word ‘your’ means it wasn’t your chocolate he ate – it
could have been someone else’s chocolate.
Stressing the seventh word ‘chocolate’ emphases that it was not
your chocolate he ate – he ate something else belonging to you.
So the sentence stress in English makes all the difference to the meaning of
the whole sentence. The stressed word in the sentence is the one we should pay the
most attention to.
Stress placement affects the whole understanding of the English language.
This issue is strongly related to the rhythm of English . Getting the right word
stress , sentence stress and rhythm leads to the perfect communication of your
intended message.
Stressed Vowel Sounds and Weak Vowels in English
The necessary words in an English sentence are stressed more by increasing
the length and clarity of the vowel sound .
In contrast, the unnecessary words are stressed less by using a shorter and less
clear vowel sound. This is called a ‘weak’ vowel sound .
20

THE MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND
INNOVATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN
SAMARKAND STATE INSITUTE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
CHAIR OF ENGLISH PHILOLOGY
Sultonova Ro’shangul Orif qizi
C О URS Е W О RK
Th е m е : General characteristics of the structure in Modern English
Speciality : 60230100-Philology and teaching languages (English language)
S а m а rk а nd
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General characteristics of the structure in Modern English

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