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Lexical and phraseological unit

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Contents Introduction…………………… Chapter I. Phraseology as a branch of lexicology………… 1.1. Theoretical survey of lexical and phraseological units……… 1.2. Classifications of lexical and phraseological units…………… Chapter II. The role of phraseological and lexical units in the lexicographic practice ……………… 2.1. Characteristic features of using lexical and phraseological units………… 2.2. Semantic problems of phraseological and lexical units in the translating process……… Conclusion………………………………………………… Bibliography……………………………………………… 1

Introduction Our county’s future is very great that’s why the forthcoming generation is support of any society and people. The flourishing of the country mostly depends on the intellect, knowledge, aspiration of its young men and women. Since the early days of Uzbekistan’s independence, care about the harmonic development of the younger generation, its physical moral and spiritual upbringing has become one of the most important priorities of state policy. In 1997, upon the immediate leadership of the First President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, Islom Karimov, the national program for Cadre Training was developed. On December 10, 2012 the First President of the Republic of Uzbekistan Islam Karimov signed a decree “On measures to further improvement of foreign language learning system”. It

expanding their powers in using additional sources of funding and providing paid services. For the first time this year, students are admitted to the 10th grade of the secondary special education system. This was carried out in parallel with the process of admission to academic lyceums and professional colleges. At the same time, the wishes and opinions of parents and students were mainly taken into account. The President of our country particularly noted the need to take into account the views of parents and students in further improving activities carried out in the sphere, organizing such events as Doors Open Days, holding meetings. The study of phraseological and lexical units has been the object of study of many linguists throughout Europe and all around the globe. The interest of the

According to this task the following particular points should be taken into consideration: - to analysis Phraseology as a branch of Lexicology; - to study existing theories about Lexical and Phraseological units; - to know about Lexical and Phraseological classifications; - to define the problems of semantics in the translating process and lexicographic practice; - to compare Phraseological and Lexical units in the Uzbek and English languages; - to analysis particular characteristic features of Lexical and Phraseological units in the language practice. The method of the research paper is that we try to identify the ways of using Lexical and Phraseological units effectively and observe some difficult and problematic situations of them in the translation process. The theoretical value of th

The structure of the qualification paper consists of Introduction, two chapters, Conclusion and Bibliography. Introduction tells about the choice of the subject matter, main tasks and objects, practical and theoretical actuality of the qualification paper, the language materials of the methods, and indicates some further suggestions for researches in this field in the future. Chapter I is devoted to study linguistic branch- Phraseology, theoretical survey of scientific investigations on Lexical and Phraseological units and their classifications. Chapter II is devoted to the role of Lexical and Phraseological units in the lexicographic practice, characteristic features of using them and their semantic problems in the translation process. Conclusion deals with information about the results

Chapter I. Phraseology as a branch of Lexicology 1.1. Theoretical survey of Lexical and Phraseological units. In order to know what are Lexical and Phraseological units firstly, we must look through Phraseology is a science about phraseological units or stable combination of words. Phraseology is a treasure of language which reflects the history, the cultures, and way of life of any nation. Phraseology after express national character. The fund of English Phraseology is rich in national, international, borrowed of terminological and non – terminological origin phraseological units. Human factor takes the basic place in phrase formation as the majority of phraseologisms are connected with different spheres of human activity. The factor of addressee is the most important element of communica

The science of linguistics admits that Ch. Bally is the father of the theory of Phraseology 1 . He systematized the combination of words in his book "Articles on Stylistics" and "French Stylistics". Ch. Bally presented the term "phraseology" in the meaning of a part of stylistics, which learns connected word combinations but this terms used in three meanings in the works of Western European and American linguists. They are given as in English and American dictionaries: a) The choice or arrangement of words and phrases in the expression of ideas; manner or style of expression the particular form of speech or diction which characterizes writer, literary production, language, etc. b) Choice of words; wording c) Manner of using and arranging words The problem about the

This way phraseology stepped to linguistics as a science. In our country there are a lot of works done on the theme of phraseology of different languages. It has been repeatedly pointed out that word groups viewed as functionally and semantically in separable units are traditionally regarded as the subject matter of phraseology. It should be noted however that no proper scientific investigation of English phraseology has been attempted among English and American linguists until quite recently English and American linguistics as a rule confine themselves to collecting various words, word group and sentences resenting some interest, either from point of view of origin, style, usage or some other particular feature peculiar to them. These units are habitually described as idioms, but no attem

the lexical components and grammatical structure on the other hands. There are numeral borderline cases. However the exiting terms, e.g. set phrases, idioms, word - equivalents, reflect to a certain extent the main debatable issues of phraseology which centre on the disurgent views concerning the nature and essential features of phraseological units as distinguished from the so called free word groups. The term set - phrase implies that the basic criterion of differentiation is stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure of word - group. The term idioms generally imply that the essential feature of the linguistic units under consideration is idiomatic or lack of motivation. This term habitually used by English and American linguistics is very often treated synonymous with

transcends the ordinary syntactical constructions and must be studied as a grammatical unit, orientity in itself. On the other hand, “idiom” is a very broad term and includes all the peculiarities and idiosyncrasies of the language constructions, and other conventional practices of an unusual character. Phraseology is also a term of wide inclusions but seems preferable or describing various, kind of phrases characterized by different degrees of stability and idiomatic in a given language. A major stimulus to intensive studies of phraseology in Russian linguistics was V.V. Vinogradov’s are search carried out in the history of the Russian vocabulary. The classification suggested by V. V. Vinogradov has been widely adopted by linguistic working on other languages. Investigation of English phr

phraseological terms of explanation lend variety to the language. The study of phraseological units will be highly useful not only as an did in immediate difficulties but as means to extend the practical knowledge of the language. The present chapter deals with word-groups consisting of two more words whose combination is integrated as a unit with specialized meaning of the whole, such as not for the word, with half heart, ups and downs, for love or money, off and on, up to the mark, ships that pass in the night and so on. The chapter has received its heading because of the great ambiguity of the terms phraseology and idioms accepted in linguistics. Opinion differs as to how this part of the vocabulary should be defined, classified, described and analyzed. To make matters worse not two aut

between the grammatical and lexical levels also, as W.Lraff points it, "the semantically and structural form peculiar to a given language". It may also mean a group of words whose meaning it is difficult or impossible to understand from the knowledge of the words considered separately 1 . Moreover, “ idioms “ may be synonymous to the words "language" or "dialect" denoting a form of expression peculiar to a people, a country, a district, or to one individual. There seems to be no point enumerating further possibilities. The word "phrase" is no less polysemantic. The term “set expression” is on the contrary more defined and such explanatory because the just elements point out the most important characteristic of these units, namely, their stability, their fixe

Soviet scholars have shown a great interest in the theoretical aspects no the whole problem and its various parts, a special branch if linguistic termed phraseology came into being in this country the most significant advanced for Russian phraseology are those by V.V. Vinogradov and Larin. As to the English language, the number of works of our linguists denoted the phraseology is so great that is impossible to enumerate them; suffice it to say that there exist a comprehensive dictionary of English idioms by A. V. Koonin accompanied by books, articles on the theory of this part of the vocabulary and doctoral theses by N.N. Amosova and A. V. Koonin with complete bibliography. B. A. Larin’s approach is diachronic. His classification reflects three consecutive stages and set expressions pass t

the dictionary entry. That is why we may speak about lexical flexibility of many units if they are used in a creative manner. Lexical stability is usually accompanied by grammatical stability which prohibits any grammatical changes; 3. Separability means that the structure of an idiom is not something indivisible, certain modifications are possible within certain boundaries. Here we meet with the so – called lexical and grammatical variants. To illustrate this point I shall give some examples: “as hungry as a wolf (as a hunter)”, “as safe as a house (houses)”in English. Functionally and sematically inseparable units are usually called phraseological units. Phraseological units cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready – made units. The lexical components in phraseologi

units are suggested: phraseological fusions phraseological unities and phraseological combinations. 1 . Phraseological fusions are completely non – motivated word – groeps, such as “tit for tat” , “red tape” – “bureaucratic methods”; “heavy father” –“serious or solemn part in a theatrical play” , “kick the basket” – “die” , represent as their name suggest the highest stage of blending together. The meaning of the components has no connection whatsoever, at least synchronically, with the meaning of the whole group. Phraseologial fusions are specific for every language and don’t lend themselves to literar translation into other language. 2. Praseological unities are much more numerous. They are clearly motivated. Their meaning can usually be perceived through the metaphoric meaning of the wh

figuratively: “meet the demand” meet the necessity, meet the requirements. The mobility of this type is much greater, the substitutions are not necessarily synonymical. In the other words, phraseological collocations are motivated but they are made up of words possessing specific lexical valency which accounts for a certain degree of stability in such word – groups. In phraseological collocations variability of member words in strictly limited 1 . For instance, “bear a gudge” may be changed into “bear malice”, but not into bear a fancy or liking. We can say “take a liking(fancy)” but not take hatred (disgust). This habitual collocations tend to become kind of clichés, where the meaning of member – words is to some extent dominated by the meaning of the whole group. Pill to this, phraseolog

that in such word – groups as “a small town” the word “town” may be substituted by a number of other nouns, e. g. room, audience etc, the adjective “small” by a number of other adjectives e. g. large, big. Substitution doesn’t effect the meaning of either “small” or “town” which denote in all word – groups. “not large” and “ a centre of population” respectively. These variability of the lexical components is the distinguishing feature of the so –called free word – groups. In other word – groups such as “small business, a small farmer” the variable member serve as a clue to the meaning of the adjective “small”. It may be observed that when combined with the words “town, room, etc. “small” denotes “not large” whereas it is only in combination whith the nouns “business, farmer,” etc. that “sm

The two criteria of phraseological units – specialized meaning and non –variability of context – display unilateral dependence. Specialized meaning of one of the member – words or idiomatic meaning of the whole word – group is never observed outside fixed context. PHRASEMES AND IDIOMS Phraseological units or fixed context are subdivided into phrasemes and idioms according to whether or not one of the components or the whole – word – groups possesses specialized meaning. Phrasemes are as a rule, two member word – groups in which one of the members has specialized meaning dependent on the second component as e. g. “small hours”, the second component ( hours ) serves the only clue to this particular meaning of the whole first component as it found only in the given context ( small hours ), t

Unusualness of collocobility, logical incompatibility of member words is indicative of the idiomaticy of the phrase. Idioms may be motivated and demotivated. A motivated idioms, which made up of words normally brought together are homonymous with corresponding free word – groups ( are homonymous to a free – phrase ) e. g. “to let the cat out of the bag” – to divulge a secret, “take the bull by the horns – to face dangers without fear, and the clue to the idiomatic meaning is to be found in a wider context outside the phrase itself. “In the nick of time” is demotivated, because the word “nick is absolute 1 . 1.2 Types of lexical and phraseological units FORMAL CLASSIFICATION Now, we pass on to a formal and functional classification based on the fact that a set – expression functioning in s

tooth and nail ), the identically structured “lord and master is a nominated phrase. Moreover, not every nominal phrase is used in all syntactic functions possible for nouns.Thus, “a bed of roses” or “a bed of nails” are used only predicatively. Functionally and semantically inseparable units are usually called phraseological units. Phraseological units can’t be freely made up in speech but they are reproduced as ready – made units. The lexical components in phraseological units are stable and they are non –motivated i.e. its meaning cannot be deduced from the meaning of its components to be changed or substituted. The vocabulary of language is enriched not only by words but also by phraseological units. Phraseological units are word – groups that cannot be made in the process of speech; t

In Smith’s classification we also find groups of idioms associated with domestic and wild animals and birds, agriculture and cooking. There also memories idioms drown from sports, arts, etc. This principle of classification is sometimes, called “etymological”. The term does not seem appropriate since we usually mean something different when we speak of the etymology of a word or a word – group. Whether the word (or word group) is native or borrowed, and if the latter, what is the course of borrowing. It is true that Smith makes a special study of idioms borrowed from other languages, but that is only a relatively small part of his classification system. Here are some examples connected with the sea: To be all at sea – to be unable to understand eg: How can I be a judge in a situation in w

the great contribution made by academician V.V Vinogradov to his branch of linguistic science. Vinogradov’s classification system is founded on the weakest cohesion between the components. The more distant meaning of the constituent parts, the greater is its degree of semantic cohesion. Accordingly, Vinogradov classifies phraseological units into 3 classes 1 : a. Phraseological combinations are word – groups with a partially changed meaning. They may be said to be clearly motivated, that is, the meaning of its constituents: To be good at something; To have bite; To come to a sickly end; To look sight; To rake something for granted; To stick one’s word; b. Phraseological units are word – groups with a completely changed meaning, that is the meaning of the unit does not correspond to the mea

constituent parts; the metaphor, on which the shift of meaning was based, has lost its clarity and observe. Example; Nick and crop (- entirely, altogether, thoroughly). To show the white feather. (- to try and please or attract somebody; to show exaggerated attention to somebody). It is obvious that this classification system does not take into account the structural characteristics of phraseological units. On the other hand, the border line separating unities from fusions is vague and even subjective. One and the same phraseological units may appear motivated to one person (and therefore be labeled as a unity). And demotivated to another (and be regarded as a fusion). Professor N. Amosova gives 2 categories of phraseological units depending on whether just one component or both are used i

There are differences between word-groups and phraseological units. The difference often is in the interrelation of lexical components, e.g.: Blue ribbon (or red, brown , etc.), but blue ribbon – an honour given to the winner of the first prize in a competition – no substitution is possible in a phraseological unit. Professor. A. I. Smirtinsky states that phraseological units may be defined as specific word groups functioning as a word – equivalent. The phraseological units are single semantically inseparable units. They are used in one function in the sentence and belong to one part of speech. According to their semantic and grammatical inseparability we may classify the phraseological units into: None equivalents; (heavy feather): Verb equivalents (to take place). Adverb equivalents; (in

1. Nominative phraseological units are represented by word – groups, including the ones which one of meaningful word and coordinative phrase of the type wear and tear, well and good. The first class also includes word – groups with a predicative structure, such as the crow flies and also, predicative phrase of the type see how the land lies, ship that pass in the night. 2. Nominative – communicative phraseological units include word –groups of the type to break the ice, the ice broken, that is, verbal word – groups which are transformed into a sentence when the verb is used in the passive voice. 3. Phraseological units which are neither nominative nor communicative include interjectional word – groups. 4. Communicative phraseological units are represented by proverbs and sayings. These fo

1. traditional phrases ( nice distinction, rough sketch ; 2. phraseological combinations ( to fall in love, to get up ); 3. idioms ( to wash one’s dirty linen in public ); The second group (phraseological combinations) fall into two subgroups: I. one-top phraseological units , which were compared with derived words; 1. verb-adverb PUs of the type to give up , e.g. to bring up, to try out, to look up, to drop in, etc. 2. PUs of the type to be tired , e.g. to be surprised, to be up to, etc. 3. Prepositional substantative units , e.g. by heart . II. two-top phraseological units , which were compared with compound words 1. attributive-nominal , e.g. brains trust , white elephant , blind alley . Units of this type function as noun equivalents; 2. verb-nominal phrases , e.g. to know the ropes,

1. stability of usage , i.e. phraseological units are reproduced ready- made, not created in speech; 2. lexical stability , i.e. the components of phraseological units are either irreplaceable or partially replaceable within the bounds of phraseological variance: Lexical : a skeleton in the cupboard / closet ( family’s secret ), a blind pig / tiger (to sell alcohol illegally ; Grammatical : to be in deep water / waters (to be in a dificult situation) , a stony heart – a heart of stone ( a stern or cruel nature); Positional: a square peg in a round hole – a round peg in a square hole (a person in a situation unsuited to their abilities or character), to dot the i’s and cross the t’s – to cross one’s t’s and dot one’s i’s (ensure that all details are correct); Quantitative : Tom, Dick and Ha

6. syntactic fixity. Prof. A.V. Koonin’ definition: ‘a phraseplogical unit is a stable word-group with wholly or partially transferred meaning. Phraseological units are subdivided into 4 classes according to the function in communication determined by structural-semantic characteristics. Classification of Functions of Phraseological units 1. nominative phraseplogical units, standing for certain notions: a bull in a china shop ; 2. nominative-communicative phraseplogical units, standing for certain notions in the Active voice, and may be used in Passive constructions: to cross the Rubicon – the Rubicon is crossed ! 3. interjectional phraseplogical units, standing for certain notions interjections: a pretty (nice) kettle of fish! For crying out loud ! 4. Communicative phraseological units st

1. Structural dissimilarity ( George liked her for she never put on airs (predicate). Big bugs like him care nothing about small fry like ourselves (a) subject, b) prepositional object). Proverbs, if viewed in their structural aspect, are sentences, and so cannot be used in the way in which phraseological units are used in the above examples. 2. Semantic aspect: Proverbs could be best compared with minute fables for, like the latter, they sum up the collective experience of the community. Proverbs: 1. moralize: Hell is paved with good intentions. 2. give advice: Don’t judge a tree by its bark . 3. give warning: If you sing before breakfast, you will cry before night. 4. admonish: Liars should have good memories. 5. criticize: Everyone calls his own geese swans. A saying is any common, coll

It’s the last straw that breaks the camel’s back: the last straw . There no use crying over spilt milk: cry over spilt milk, spilt milk . Generally proverbs and sayings are emotionally colored. Proverbs are short sayings that express popular wisdom, a truth or a moral lesson in a concise and imaginative way: It never rains, but it pours . Easy come, easy go . A miss is as good as a mile . Too many chiefs and not enough Indians . Least said, soonest mended . Practice what one peaches . You can’t teach an old dog new tricks . Charity begins at home. Many proverbs and sayings are metaphorical: Time is money. Little drops make the mighty ocean ( little drops). Rome wasn’t built in a day. (a day); Make the mighty ocean, building Rome ( a large task). It takes two to tango ( (both parties involv

are morphemes that is parts of words, into which words may be analysed, and s e t e x p r e s s i o n s or groups of words into which words may be com bined. Words are the central elements of language system, they face both ways: they are the biggest units of morphology and the smallest of syn tax", and what is more, they embody the main structural properties and functions of the language. Words can be separated in an utterance by other such units and can be used in isolation. Unlike words, morphemes cannot be divided into smaller meaningful units and are functioning in speech only as constituent parts of words. Words are thought of as representing integer concept, feeling or action or as having a single refer ent. The meaning of morphemes is more abstract and more general than that of

patterns come into being, and new names sometimes adapt features characteristic of other sets, those of groups of words, for instance. O r t h o g r a p h i c w o r d s are written as a sequence of letters bounded by spaces on a page. Yet, there exist in the English vocabulary lexical units that are not identical with orthographic words but e q u i v a l e n t to them. Almost any part of speech contains units indivisible either syntactically or in terms of meaning, or both, but graphically divided. A good example is furnished by complex prepositions: along with, as far as, in spite of, except for, due to, by means of, for the sake of, etc. The same point may be illustrated by phrasal verbs, so numerous in English: bring up ‘to educate’, call on ‘to visit’, make up ‘to apply cosmetics’, ‘to

mathematics to describe sets with blurred boundaries seems expressive and worthy of use in characterising a vocabulary — such sets are called fuzzy sets. Lexical System of Language It has been claimed by different authors that, in contrast to grammar, the vocabulary of a language is not systematic but chaotic. In the light of recent investigations in linguistic theory, however, we are now in a position to bring some order into this “chaos”. Lexicology studies the recurrent patterns of semantic relationships, and of any formal phonological, morphological or contextual means by which they may be rendered. It aims at systematisation. There has been much discussion of late, both in this country and abroad, concerning different problems of the systematic nature of the language vocabulary. The S

when the number of its elements is greater than the number of rules according to which these elements may be constructed. A set is given either by indicating, i.e. listing, all its elements, or by stating the characteristic property of its elements. For example the closed set of English articles may be defined as comprising the elements: the, a/an and zero. The set of English compounds on the other hand is an infinite (open) set containing all the words consisting of at least two stems which occur in the language as free forms. In a classical set theory the elements are said to be definite because with respect to any of them it should be definite whether it belongs to a given set or not. proved to be more relevant to the study of vocabulary. The lexical system of every epoch contains produ

of word forms and word-groups, semantic groupings and relationships between words. The interaction of various levels in the language system may be illustrated in English by the following: the widespread develop ment of homonymy and polysemy, the loss of motivation, the great num ber of generic words and the very limited autonomy of English words as compared with Russian words are all closely connected with the mono- morphemic analytical character of the English language and the scarci ty of morphological means. All these in their turn result, partly at least, from levelling and loss of endings, processes undoubtedly connected with the reduction of vowels in unstressed syllables. In this book the relations between these elements and the regularity of these relations are shown. In terms of o

concepts they name, i.e. various names given to the same sense. The onomasiological study of lexical units became especially prominent in the last two decades. The revival of interest in onomasiological matters is reflected in a large volume of publications on the subject. An outline of the main trends of current research will be found in the monographs on the Theory of Nomination issued by the Institute of Linguistics of the Academy of Sci enc Syntagmatic relationships being based on the linear character of speech are studied by means of contextual, valency, distributional, transformational and some other types of analysis. Paradigmatic linguistic relationships determining the vocabulary system are based on the interdependence of words within the vocabulary (synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy,

The influence of morphology is manifest, for instance, in the development of non-affixed word-formation. harvest n and harvest v. The above considerations are not meant to be exhaustive; they are there to give some general idea of the relationships in question. In this connection it is necessary to point out that various interpretations of the same linguistic phenomena have repeatedly been offered and have even proved valuable for their respective purposes, just as in other sciences various interpretations may be given for the same facts of reality in conformity with this or that practical task. To be scientific, however, these interpretations cannot be arbitrary: they must explain facts and permit explanation and prediction of other facts. Therefore they must fit without bringing contrad

Phraseology is a branch of linguistics which studies different types of set expressions, which like words name various objects and phenomena. They exist in the language as ready-made units. A Phraseological unit can be defined as a non-motivated word-group that cannot be freely made up in speech, but is reproduced as a ready-made unit. It is a group of words whose meaning cannot be deduced by examining the meaning of the constituent lexemes. The essential features of PU are : 1) lack of motivation; 2) stability of the lexical components. A dark horse is actually not a horse but a person about whom no one knows anything definite. A bull in a china shop : the idiom describes a clumsy person. A white elephant – it is a waste of money because it is completely useless. The green-eyed monster i

To cut somebody dead means ‘to rudely ignore somebody; to pretend not to know or recognize him’. Puns are frequently based on the ambiguousness of idioms: - Isn’t our Kate a marvel! I wish you could have seen her at the Harrisons’ party yesterday. If I’d collected the bricks she dropped all over the place, I could built a villa’. To drop a brick means ‘to say unintentionally a quite indiscreet or tactless thing that shocks and offended people’. The author of the “Book of English Idioms” Collins write: “In standard spoken and written English today idioms is an established and essential element that, used with care, ornaments and enriches the language.” Used with care is an important warning because speech overloaded with idioms loses its freshness and originality. Idioms, after all, are rea

Free word-groups are so called not because of any absolute freedom in using them but simply because they are each time built up anew in the speech process whereas idioms are used as ready-made units with fixed and constant structures. 4. The function of lexical units. Naming process: causes, ways, types and results. To solve the problem of the constituents of the lexicon we have to view it from the functional or dynamic point of view, i.e. from the angle of what lexical units are functionally destined for and of how they arise in the language system. The theory that discusses these problems - the theory of naming, or nomination, or verbalization (giving a name to a class of objects, properties, processes). The roots of the naming theory go back to ancient times. One can easily quote Plato’

the one which is connected with sound. The results of imitation naming processes pose a very serious linguistic problem- arbitrariness, conventionality of a name, or the form of a lexical unit: the animal world gives us numerous examples: Cats miaou - мяукают Cows mooh - му - му ( мычат ) People sneeze in English and чихают in Russian producing sounds different enough: atishoo and апчхи . 2) Semantic derivation (Transfer of Things) which seem to have no likeness are given the same name. E.g. eye is a name for an organ of sight, and eyes of a potato, eye of a needle, the eye of the tornado, etc. Though first it appeared as the name of a human organ later on the name was transferred to other objects. 3) Word derivation - creation of novel names on the basis of names already existent in the w

3. Discourse - when a text serves as a name for some usual complex situation, or a series of situations. Lexical verbalization is the major source for the lexicon thought to discard names created in the form of propositions or discourse units would be snobbish and wrong for though to a lesser degree their outcome might become established ways of expression, especially in the form of questions. Lexical units: their properties and specific features . Systemic structure of words:  Sentences -make up communicative level  Words -constitute lexical level  Morphemes -form morphological level  Phonemes -constituents of phonological level. Lexical units are multi-faceted linguistic units, which are characterized at least by 2 features: meaning and form . This leads to the phonemes being ousted

because ), determiners ( a , the ) and a few others. The major lexical categories : noun (N), verb (V), adjecti+ve (Adj.) and adverb (Adv.) are open . The count of the number of lexical units in the vocabulary is impossible due to constant flow of lexical items out of the present-day word stock. The description of the lexicon in generative grammar . In the generative tradition grammar embraces the whole of the language system: elements, sets of rules and conditions that allow people to speak and understand a language. Grammar in this sense of the term consists of the following components: Phonetics(function- articulation and perception of speech sounds),Phonology aimed at patterning of speech sounds, Morphology-word and word-form formation, Syntax, or sentence formation, and Semantics the

while non-derived forms and rules are presented in the form of a list. M. Aronoff ’s version.The starting point for all derivation processes is not a list of morphemes but that of words. The lexicon for M. Aronoff is a list of words, which function as bases. Word composition is a part of syntax, there is no list of morphemes nor is there a filter just as regular patterns devoid of idiosyncratic features are not part of the lexicon 1 . There are variations in the treatment of morphemes – morphemes as things in which morphemes are autonomous units which in the processes of affixation, compounding, etc. are combined; 2) morphemes as rules in which rules, or operations play a predominant role. Lexicon is a total stock of meaningful units: words, idioms (stable word- combination), parts of word

troubles you.» 3. discourse - when a text serves as a name for some usual complex situation, or a series of situations. Role of motivated lexical units in the structure of lexicon and communication Cases- to observe a direct connection between the structural pattern of the word and its meaning. This relationship between morphemic structure and meaning- morphological motivation. Main criterion in morphological motivation-relationship between morphemes.All one-morpheme words, e.g. sings, tell, eat- by definition non- motivated. In words composed of more than one morpheme carrier of word- meaning-combined meaning of the component morphemes and the meaning of the structural pattern of the word. This can be illustrated by the semantic analysis of different words composed of phonemically identic

Some linguists argue that words can be motivated in more than one way,another type of motivation-direct connection between the phonetical structure of the word and its meaning. Argues that speech sounds may suggest visual dimensions, shape, size, etc. Experiments showed that back open vowels are suggestive of big size, heavy weight, dark colour, etc. The experiments were repeated,the results-same. Native speakers-to listen to pairs of antonyms from non- existent language unrelated to English, e.g. ching — chung and then to try to find the English equivalents, e.g. light — heavy, (big — small, etc.), which foreign word translates which English word. About 90 per cent of English speakers felt that ching is the equivalent of the English light (small) and chung of its antonym heavy (large). Th

The word as the basic lexical unit . Saussure, Humboldt, Vygotsky and Jean Aitcheson- the key role of a word in the structure and function of language. George Miller 1 ”Words- the fundamental units of language”. This, then, is a well-established tradition... and any approach aiming at a general theory of language must accord the word a central place. Few theories attribute to the word a truly central position in the language, and more than one approach either peripheralizes it or dispenses with it altogether as a linguistic entity. Their role as the elements of discourse, the building blocks of meaning from which sentences are constructed. L. Bloomfield viewed: “The word as a minimal free form. But it is not completely satisfying” 2 . Allan Gartner: “The word is the unit of tongue” 3 . A

expressing it is universal in space and time. It is this that makes the word a necessity in every act of language. Thus, the boundaries of the lexicon also vary depending each time on the way we delimit words. Typologies of meaning. Lexical and grammatical meaning. W ord-meaning is not homogeneous but is made up of various components that combination and interrelation of which determine the inner facet of the word. The 2 main types of meaning-the grammatical and lexical meanings in words and word-forms. Grammatical meaning. Word-forms, such as girls, winters, joys, tables, etc. though denoting widely different objects of reality have something in common. This common element is the grammatical meaning of plurality which can be found in all of them. Thus grammatical meaning may be defined ,a

Certain component of the meaning of a word is de-scribed when you identify it as a part of speech; since different parts of speech are distributionally different (my work and I work). Lexical Meaning. Comparing word-forms of one and the same word-observe that besides grammatical meaning, there is another component of meaning in them. This component is identical in all the forms of the word. E.g. the word-forms go, goes, went, going, gone possess different grammatical meanings of tense, person and so on, but in each of these forms we find one and the same semantic component denoting the process of movement. This is the lexical meaning of the word which may be described as the component of meaning proper to the word as a linguistic unit, i.e. recurrent in all the forms of this word. The diff

of the real world, including situations, and also replacement of these objects in speech activity by their phraseological denominations. Function which is closely connected with nominative function is the cognitive function that is the socially determined reflexion of objects of the real world mediated by consciousness, promoting their cognition. The social determinacy is shown in the fact that though potential phraseological units are created by separate individuals, these individuals are part of the society, and the realization of the cognitive function by them is possible only on the basis of previous knowledge. «The process of cognition also includes such forms of cogitative activity, as foresight, fantasy, imagination, dream, intuition…». Cognitive and nominative functions are realize

The stylistic function realizes in speech connotative features of a phraseological unit. Linguistics: only stylistic coloring. The idea about it is given by marks and comments in stylistic dictionaries which, unfortunately, are still far from being perfect. Comparison of a phraseological unit with its variable prototype also helps to reveal stylistic coloring. Developing, on the Russian material, the phraseological theory in its functional-semantic aspect, S. G. Garvin singles out some functions of phraseological units. These functions are peculiar also to English phraseological units 1 : 1) The expressively-figurative function (catch at a straw; forbidden fruit, etc.); 2) The emotionally-expressional function (damn your eyes!; go to the devil!); 3) The function of speech concision by omit

influencing, and in separate prospect bringing up, forming a person. We named it directive. Examples of proverbs with the directive function can be the following: as you brew, so must you drink; cut your coat according to your clot; look before you leap, etc. The summarizing function of a phraseological unit consists in the fact that it is the short resume of the previous statement, e. g., that’s flat (coll.) — it is definitively solved, resolutely and irrevocably: Well, I will not marry her: that’s flat (G. B. Shaw). Summarizing function in a context is characteristic of many proverbs, for example, all’s well that ends well; in for a penny, in for a pound, etc. Introducing a luxury car that will not take you for a ride. The given advertising heading concerns the car, and two meanings of t

Augustus:… It’s an ill bird that fouls its own nest. (G. B. Shaw). Interjectional phraseological units can carry out the compensatory function which is realized in the description of strong sincere emotional experience, affect, when speech of the subject is complicated and an interjectional phraseological unit is the only content of the whole remark. Oh dear — my God: Jimmy: They did not say much. But I think she’s dying. Cliff: Oh, dear ( J. Osborne). The text-building (or the context-building) function is characteristic of phraseological units at their realization. For the first time the question concerning text-building functions of phraseological units was raised by I. I. Chernysheva. The proposition that phraseological units can be binding means not only of contexts, but also context

The most widely agreed-upon definition of an idiom is that which specifies that the meaning of the whole is not determinable given the meanings of its parts. This means that an idiom cannot be interpreted literally. Patricia G. Adkins defines idioms as “modes of expression or phrases which are peculiar to a given language”. She continues to point out that idioms “are the basis for understanding the language, since they constitute a large part of it. They are rarely translated literally and often the dictionary is of little aid in the determination of the meaning of a particular expression”. As a matter of fact, an idiom is an independent expression unit; it should be treated like every individual word in a dictionary, and thus the unit should be picked up as a whole 1 . An attempt to chan

units are defined as units made up of at least two words, as unique combinations of words not created according to a certain pattern and no other combinations can be created accordingly. Combinatory abilities of phraseological units are different from the combinatory abilities of regular language. Such an expression which has been used over time so frequently that it loses its special features with which many speakers are familiar with is considered an idiomatic expression. There have been diverse definitions of phraseological units and for that matter, scholars often approach the issue from their unique perspectives based on different research purposes. However, we have considered few of their features below: Non-compositionality of idioms This means that the meaning of the whole is not a

have conventionalized meanings, agreed upon by the speakers of the language, which actually can be figured out if they are not known. The meaning of a metaphor, is not fixed, and novel metaphors must be figured out. Thus, unfamiliar idioms will not be understood, except perhaps by guessing at the meaning from the context in which they are used. Translatabilility of idioms Students of foreign languages have often come to see idioms as strings of words which cannot be translated literally into the other language. This has led some people to believe that no idioms can be translated literally. There are however, many idioms which have direct word for word translations in other languages without losing their idiomatic meanings. Roos classifies idioms which can be translated as either congruent

The third reason for their popularity is the figurative nature of idioms. All idioms are figurative and because they are figurative, they add color and fun to the language. People enjoy using idioms because by so doing they feel that they can play with the words. A sentence like “you will not get anything done if you have too many irons in the fire” is more colorful and interesting than “You will not accomplish anything if you try to do too many things at one time”. The final reason may have to do with the semantic leakage. The reason that semantic leakage adds to the popularity of idioms is that it creates a double image, a figurative one accompanied by a literal one. The effect of this double image makes our speech interesting and sometimes witty, as in the following play on a pun cited

phraseological unit can be presented a definite micro –system. In the process of translating phraseological units functional adequate linguistic units are selected by comparing two specific linguistic principles. These principles reveal elements of likeness and distinction. Certain part of these system may correspond in form and context or have no adequacy. The main types of phraseological conformities are as follows: 1. Complete conformities. 2. Partial conformities. I . Complete coincidence of form and context in phrasiological units is rarely met with. 1. Black frost (phrase me) – qorasovuq. 2. To bring oil to fire (idiom) – alangagayog’ quymoq. II. Partial conformities of phraseological units in two language assume lexical, grammatical and lexica – grammatical differences with identity

Strike while iron is hot. Temirni qizig’ida bos. All in not gold that glitters. Barcha yaltiragan narsalar oltin emas. Many English phraseological units have no phraseological conformities in Uzbek and Russian. In the first instance this concerns phraseological units based on really. When translating units of this find it’s advisable to use the following types of translation. A. A verbatim word for word translation. B. Translation by analogy. C. Descriptive translation. Verbatim translation is possible when the way of thinking is not necessary. Eg. To call thing by their true names. Bear a specific national feature: Har narsani o’z nomi bilan atamoq. The arms race (phraseme) Qurollanish poygasi. Cold war – (idiom). Sovuqurush. Translation by analogy. This way of translation is resorted to

and “Partiya” as a political word. Phraseological units cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as readymade units. The lexical components in phraseological units are stable and they are non – motivated; that is its meaning cannot decoded from the meaning of its components and they don’t allow their lexical components In phraseological units the individual components don’t seem to possess any lexical meaning outside the word group. Eg.Red tape, to get rid of, to take place. To lead the dance to take care. Ma’ruza qilishdan menga bir dona guruchli kmanfaat yo’q” – Dedi domla o’ziga norozi bo’lib… A.Qahhor “Sarob” Toshkent 1995 y. 110-bet. “I’ll have benefit not worth a bean from having talk”, - said the teacher disagreebly. “bean” is translated into Uzbek as “lovia” and “gurun

by phrase but try not to express their meaning semantics and emphasis in translated language as in the original one. One of the most actual tasks of the theory of translation is to pay close attention to the words of national coloring and express them by every nations own lexical and Phraseological Units 1 . Here we can observe this in the example: 1Hamma o’lib-tirilib ishlab yursa-yu, bir tirraqi buzoq podani Bulg’atsa, hali ko’rasan buning isnodi butun brigadaga tegadi, ko’zini moshday ochib qo’yish kerak bunaqalarni – dedi Sigbatulin. Everyone is working hard as much as possible, but don’t you see that one rotten apple is injuring its neighbors, it will cause shy to the whole brigade, I gamble, we must open their eyes wide,-said Sibgatulin. Here we have taken the component of the Uzbek

The study of phraseological units has been the object of study of many linguists throughout Europe and all around the globe. The interest of their study has raised contributions steadily since the beginning of the twentieth century. Many researchers have attempted to give several definitions of idiomatic units along the years. The different approaches and different features of idioms have added to the complexity of the term. Traditionally, idioms are believed to be unpredictable or non- compositional. We can come across such kind particular peculiarities and definitions of Phraseological and Lexicological units in the famous works of well-known scientists and linguists such as: Chafe, Chomsky, Fraser, Katz and so many others. All have reached the conclusion that idioms are phrases the mean

have greatly contributed to the classification of idioms in English as well. They have categorized idioms in three main categories. From the analysis of idiomatic units in languages there emerge different semantic classification groups, selected for analysis in our present study, which will be treated in further detail below. To be all at sea – to be unable to understand e.g : How can I be a judge in a situation in which I am all at sea? I am afraid I am all at sea in this problem. V.A Collins remarks that metaphor is that of a boot tossed about, out of control, with its occupants not knowing where they are. To sink or swim – to fail or succeed. E.g : It is a case or swim. All depends on his own effort. In deep water – in trouble or in danger; In low water, on the rocks – in strained fina

2) stability of the lexical components. A dark horse is actually not a horse but a person about whom no one knows anything definite. A bull in a china shop : the idiom describes a clumsy person. A white elephant – it is a waste of money because it is completely useless. The green-eyed monster is jealousy, the image being drawn from Othello. To let the cat out of the bag : to let some secret become known. To bark up the wrong tree (Am) means ‘to follow a false scent; to look for somebody or something in a wrong place; to expect from somebody what he is unlikely to do’. The idiom is not infrequently used in detective stories: The police are barking up the wrong tree as usual, i.e. they suspect somebody who has nothing to do with the crime. Phraseological units are word – groups with a comple

Example: To toe the line. (- to do exactly as one is told). If one of the components has bound specialized meaning dependent on the second components she celled “presumes”. Example: To bring to book. (- to bring to justice); Small years. (- in the childhood) Proverbs, sayings and quotations exist also as ready – made units with a specialized meaning of their own which cannot be deduced from the meaning of their components. Therefore, they may be included in phraseological units. The classification system of phraseological units by professor A.V. Koonin is the latest outstanding achievement in the theory of phraseology. The classification is based on the combined structural semantic principle and it also considers the quotient of stability of phraseological units. Phraseological units are s

structure of the phraseological units. The subgroups include further rubies representing types of structural – semantic meanings according to the kind of relation between the constituents and to either full or partial transference of meaning. The word as the basic lexical unit . Saussure, Humboldt, Vygotsky and Jean Aitcheson- the key role of a word in the structure and function of language. George Miller ”Words- the fundamental units of language”. This, then, is a well-established tradition... and any approach aiming at a general theory of language must accord the word a central place. Few theories attribute to the word a truly central position in the language, and more than one approach either peripheralizes it or dispenses with it altogether as a linguistic entity. Their role as the ele

have to do with idiomaticization: the way idioms are created. The elements of many idioms are either alliterated, rhymed, contrasted, synonymised or a combination of any of the above by hook or by crook (synonym & rhyme) take the cake (rhyme) move heaven and earth (contrast) Ma’ruza qilishdan menga bir dona guruchli kmanfaat yo’q” – Dedi domla o’ziga norozi bo’lib… A.Qahhor “Sarob” Toshkent 1995 y. 110-bet. “I’ll have benefit not worth a bean from having talk”, - said the teacher disagreebly. “bean” is translated into Uzbek as “lovia” and “gurunch” is translated into English as “rise”. But the English language has such Phraseological Units with the name of bean which coincides to the meaning of the Phraseological Unit in Uzbek with the name of “rise”: that is we found there a partial confo

by phrase but try not to express their meaning semantics and emphasis in translated language as in the original one. One of the most actual tasks of the theory of translation is to pay close attention to the words of national coloring and express them by every nations own lexical and Phraseological Units . Bibliography 69

1. Adam. M.A “The origin of Idioms and their classification” German 1978 2. Akhmanova O.S “Semantics of Phraseological units in Modern English” Moscow, 1972 3. Akhmanova O.S “Lexicology: theory and methods”. Moscow 1912. 4. Alan Gartner “Lexemes and Lexical units” German 1983 5. Amosova N.N. English contextology.Leningrad, 1963. 6. Amosova N.N. “Essentials of English Phraseology.” Leningrad 1962 7.Aron M.N. “Introduction course on Lexicology” Moscow 1976 8. Arnold I.V. “ The English Word” Moscow 1986. 9. A concise collection of American – English idioms for everyday use “Something to crow about” 1995. 10. Aznaurova E. S. “Translation – theory and practice” Tashkent 1989. 11. Bally Ch.S. “Articles on Stylistics” London 1999 12.Bally Ch.S. “French Stylistics” London 1999 13. Bloomfield L.V.

24.Koonin A.V “English-Russian Phraseological dictionary” Moscow 1973 25.Lraff W.S “Idioms and Phrases” Moscow 1979 26.Patrica Adkins “International Conference on Linguistics, Literature and Culture” London 1968 27. Schachmatov A. “Syntax” Moscow 1970 28. Smith I. P. “Words and idioms” London 1928. Smirnitsky A.I “Practical course of Phraseological units” second edition Moscow 1876 Used dictionaries. 1. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English London. 1992 2. Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary Oxford University Press. 2000 3. V.K.Muller English – Russian Dictionary Moscow. 1997 4. И . Лисовская , И . Чернышев « Англо - русский русско - английский словарь » Тетра К . Москва 2004. 5. Т. А. Сиротина «Англо-русский русско-английский словарь» БАО ПРЕСС. Москва 2004. 6. J. Hinton and V. Bayko

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