“Look” so`zining lingvistik tahlili - Английский язык - Дипломные работы

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“Look” so`zining lingvistik tahlili

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“Look” so`zining lingvistik tahlili 1

CONTENTS: 1.Introduction………………………………………………………………….3-8 Chapter 1: About English words…………………………………………….9-10 1.1. English words in modern linguistics………………………..11-12 1.2. About parts of speech……………………………………….13-20 1.3. A word “look” in different positions………………………..21-23 1.4. “Look” as a noun……………………………………………24-26 1.5. “Look” as a verb…………………………………………....27-31 1.6. “Look” as an adjective………………………………………32 1.7. “Look” as a participle……………………………….............33-38 1.8. “Look” as a gerund……………………………………….....39-46 1.9. “Look” as an infinitive……………………………………...47-65 Chapter 2: Syntactic-semantic and linguistic analysis of the word “look”….66-69 2.1. “Look” as a verb. 2.1.1. Active syntactic-semantic features………………………..70 2.1.2. Stative syntactic-semantic features……………………….71 2.2. “Look” as a noun.

Introduction. In the conditions of deep socio-cultural transformations which have taken place in Independent Uzbekistan during the transition to a market economy, multiple forms of property and different social systems, the problem of the formation of citizens of the Republic of Uzbekistan, their historical memory and their education have special significance. All people, especially the young, need a deep appreciation and love of the rich heritage of our great ancestors and the inexhaustible fund of their philosophical and scientific works. Without the historical experience of one`s own nation and national and human values it is impossible to build a great future. That is why the problem of the continuity of the knowledge and spiritual values of our ancestors, and an understanding and fami

The cult of family and children over many generations is closely connected with the cult of health. According to the tradition of Ibn Sina, our people traditionally followed the recommendations of our ancestors and stood categorically against the bad habits which undermine people`s health. In this connection, I.A. Karimov underlined that a "culture of personal care of one`s own health needs to be inculcated from one`s youngest years, using all the forces of family, school and makhalla for the protection of the health system, physical training and sport. It is important that in speech and action people value their health and care for it as a national heritage." 2 The President holds that the "behavior" of people is not only a matter of contact with each other; morality is fi

characteristic of the new constitution is its recognition of the responsibility of state establishments and its officers before citizens, that is to say the priority of the interests of every citizen." 4 The conception of honor and dignity has a close connection with such social values as conscience which means the responsibility of a person for his or her own activity and behavior. Conscience is characterized by the ability of the person for the self-appreciation and self-criticism of one`s mode of life or of avoiding moral duties. Conscience as a moral prodding is a regulator of personal behavior. It urges humans to do what is right on the basis of personal conviction and the common norms of morality, without further external direction, for example, from authorities and government. T

can differentiate similarities and dissimilarities between them is the most worthy thing. The actuality of the theme is to learn the word “look” by the theory with the practice based on the opinions of scientists, and to do syntactic – semantic and linguistic analysis, and to prove it with some examples. 2. The degree of studying the research work: The word “look” is the basic part of the sentence in English, because it may come as a noun, an adjective and a verb. But many scientists didn`t pay attention to the word “look” this word is not learnt in the single form. So we choose this theme as the research work. 3. The aim of the research work: The aims of the research work are composed of learning the word “look”, it`s appearing in different positions, for instance, as the parts of speech,

-to study the word “look” as the simple words, the word-combinations and the phrases. And to compare this word with the other words, verbs, nouns and adjectives; -to use the taken examples by Modern English and American writers, to study the lexic-grammatic types of the word “look” from all sides. 7. The methods of the research work: 1) To collect the information and analyze them; 2) To analyze the examples which was taken from artistic literatures; 3) To work on the material. 8. The methodological bases of the research work: Scientists` opinions based on the theme, literatures, the works of English writers and the materials of the theoretical-practical conferences. 9. Scientific novelty of the research work: Until these days, a number of scientists paid attention the word “look” as a verb

information about the theme in the introduction. The first chapter consists of eight parts. There are given about words in Modern Linguistics, about parts of speech, about the word “look” in different positions, “look” as a verb, “look” as a noun, “look” as an adjective, “look” as a gerund and “look” as an infinitive. The second chapter perfectly devoted to lexic, syntactic-semantic analysis of the word “look”. And this chapter is based on active, agent, object, qualificative and other syntactic- semantic features. There are given much information and examples about the word “look”. For instance: 1.His face looked helpless – “looked” is a verb and it has active syntaxeme. 2.He gave me a look – in this sentence “look” is a noun and it has agent syntaxeme. 3.She has gloomy-looking lady – “gl

Sounds by themselves are not enough to constitute language. It is only when they are grouped into words and when these words are arranged in certain sequences to convey certain meanings that they begin to acquire the true character of language, which functions as a means of communication in human society. The word is the fundamental unit of language ,representing the things of the real world and the psychological life of man. There have been many attempts to define the word but very often they were based upon idealistic premises. The word is a sequence of human sounds conveying a certain concept, idea or meaning, which has gained general acceptance in a social group of people speaking the same language and historically connected. Each word has its own meaning. A word which is devoid of mea

duckling” in English with that in Yana, which literally translated reads something like “ kill-s, he, farmer, he, to duck-ling”, he notes some concrete concepts in Yana which are absent in English. The idea of farming, for example is expressed in phrases like “to dig-earth” or to “grow-cause” and so on. In the languages of some tribes there is no general concept of word for “hand”, for instance, but there are many words for separate parts of the hand. A curious remnant of this may be found in English and German, in which “arm” means part of the body between the shoulder and the hand , and the “hand” is the end of the arm beyond the wrist, but there is no one word for this part of the body. There is no such distinction in the Russian word “ruka”. In the process of acquiring experience of th

Morphology, it is often claimed, has no “autonomous” existence, as syntactical analysis includes morphological processes. Ferdinand de Saussure himself considers morphology as a part of syntax. This perception has come to dominate recent post – Bloomfieldian linguistic thinking once again. It is, however, better to view the two domains separately, morphology being the level that includes segmental morphemes and the way words are built out of them, and syntax being the level that the ways in which words and morphemic elements are arranged and organized into larger consrutions. Syntaxs has been defined by Richards, Platt and Weber as the study of how words combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences. In genetive transformational grammar the syntactic compo

Similarly, in English we always say the fish, an apple, a building, not fish the, apple an, building a, unless, of course, these words are part of the sentences like he was amused to see in fish the colours of …., and have no meaning apart from them. As independent segments the fish, an apple, a building are more acceptable. Secondly, these two segments are also more closely linked to each other than a verb following them and the preceding noun. We can diagram this in the following manner. “That the determiner the goes with fish is obvious enough. Their relation can better be understood by dividing the construction in the manner shown below The division made above shows that syntactical units are heirarchically ordered. Each downward motion splits the segment into further pattern that show

1.Pre-structural tendency; 2.Structural tendency; 3.Post-structural tendency. 1.Pre-structural tendency is characterized by classifying into word-groups according to their meaning, function and form. To this group of scientists H.Sweet, O.Jespersen, O.Curme, B.Ilyish and other grammarians can be included. 2.The second tendency is characterized by classification of words exclusively according to their structural meaning, as per their distribution. The representative of the tendency are: Ch.Fries, W.Francis, A.Hill and others. 3.The third one combines the ideas of the two above-mentioned tendencies. They classify words in accord with the meaning, function, form; stem-building means and distribution(or combinability). To this group of scientists we can refer most Russian grammarians such as:

As you see, the results of his classification, however, reveal a considerable divergence between his theory and practice. He seems to have kept to the form of words. Further, concluding the chapter he wrote: “The distinction between the two classes which for convenience we distinguish as declinable and indeclinable parts of speech is not entirely dependent on the presence or absence of inflection, but really goes deeper, corresponding, to some extent to the distinction between head- word and adjunct-word. The great majority of the particles are used only as adjunct-words, many of them being only form-words, while declinable words generally stand to the particles in the relation of headwords. O. Jespersen: According to Jespersen the division of words into certain classes in the main goes ba

designated by letters. The form-classes correspond roughly to what most grammarians call noun and pronouns (1 st clause), verb(2 nd clause),adjective and adverbs, though Fries warns the reader against the attempt to translate the statements which the latter finds in the book into the old grammatical terms. The group of function words contains not only prepositions and conjunctions but certain specific words that more traditional grammarians would class as a particular kind of pronouns, adverbs and verbs. In the following examples: 1.Woggles ugged diggles; 2.Uggs woggled digs; 3.Diggles diggled diggles. The woggles, uggs, diggles are “thing”, because they are treated as English treats “thing” words – we know it by the “positions” they occupy in the utterances and the forms they have, in con

In such a way he revealed 4 classes of notional words and 15 classes of functional words. These four classes of notional words contain approximately 65 per cent of the total instances of the vocabulary items. In other words our utterances consist primarily of arrangements of these four parts of speech. Functional words are identified by letters Class A words The concert was good The a/an every No my our One all both That some John`s All the words appearing in this position (group A) serve as markers of Class1 words. Sometimes they are called “determiners”. The difference between the four classes of words and function words are as follows: 1.The four classes are large in number while the total number of function words amounts to 154. 2.In the four classes the lexical meaning of the separate

indicate a lexical meaning apart from the structural meanings which these words signal. 3.Function words must be treated as items since they signal different structural meanings: The boys were given the money. The boys have given the money. Russian grammarians in classifying words into parts of speech keep to different concepts. A.I.Smirnitsky identifies three criteria. The most important of them is the syntactic function next comes meaning and then morphological forms of words. In his opinion stem-building elements are of no use. His word-groups are: Notional words Function words 1.Nouns link-verbs 2.Adjectives prepositions 3.Numerals conjunctions 4.Pronouns modifying function words 5.Adverbs (article, particle) 6.Verbs only, even, not Khaimovich and Rogovskaya identify five criteria 1.Le

3.Grammatical categories of words 4.Their combinability(unilateral, bilateral) 5.Their function in a sentence. As authors state the parts of speech lack some of those five criteria. The most general properties of parts of speech are features 1, 4 and 5. B.A.Ilyish distinguishes three criteria: 1.meaning; 2.form; 3.function. The third criteria is subdivided into two: a)the method of combining the word with other ones; b)the function in the sentence. a)has to deal the phrases; b)with sentence structure. B.A. Ilyish considers the theory of parts of speech as essentially a part of morphology, involving, however, some syntactical points. 1.Nouns 7.Adverbs 2.Adjectives 8.Prepositions 3.Pronoun 9.Conjunctions 4.Numerals 10.Particles 5.Statives(asleep, afraid) 11.Modal words 6.Verbs 12.Interjectio

grammatical forms, combinability with other words and the types of word-building (which are studied not by grammar, but by lexicology). 1.Nouns 7.Verbs 2.Articles 8.Prepositions 3.Pronouns 9.Conjunctions 4.Adjectives 10.Particles 5.Adverbs 11.Modal words 6.Numerals 12.Interjections We find another approach of those authors to the words of English. All the words are divided into two main classes: notional words and function words: connectives, determinatives. Function words are those which do not have full lexical meaning and cannot be used as an independent part of sentences. According to their function these words, as has been mentioned are subdivided into connectives and determinatives: 1.Connectives form phrases as to believe in something or as in the hall. To connectives authors refer:

generally accepted: in Modern English there are two classes of words-notional and functional which are rather distinct. The classification of parts of speech is based on: 1.meaning; 2.form; 3.function. 1.Meaning (but not lexical meaning) common to all the words of a given class. For instance: Noun – “thingness”, Verb – “process or action”. 2.By form – the Morphological characteristics of a type of word. Noun is characterized by the category of number, verb by tense, mood, etc. several types of words (prepositions, conjunctions and others) are characterized by invariability. 3.By function we mean the syntactical properties of a type: a)its combining with other words; b)its functions in the sentence. The theory of parts of speech is considered by most scholars to be a part of morphology. Som

Rose of Sharon looked at the tiny spots of blood on her fingers (J.S.Th) This underlined word is a verb. “look” may express also noun in Modern English. For instance: Noah walks always with a wondering look on his face (J.s.Th) This underlined word is a noun. The word “look” combines with some prepositions or adverbs and it will be phrases or simple meaning word combinations. For instance: 1.Look – direct your gaze in a particular direction; Huston looked after them until disappearing (J.S.Th) There has own mean of the word “look”, it keeps mean. 2.Look after – take care of. Bart looked after him (D.C.S) But, in this sentence the word`s mean changed. Phrases are leaned in the phraseology. Phraseology is the part of lexicology. But A.V.Koonin thinks that phraseology must be an independent l

to look up, to look over, to look across, to look quickly, to look significantly, to look around, to look ahead, to look curiously, to look toward, to look sideways, to look underneath, to look under, to look wildly, to look carefully, to look down, to look out, to look about, to look shyly, to look off, to look back, to look through, to look slowly, to look for and etc. 3.Adjective equivalents: to look + adjective to look fine, to look long, to look baptized, to look new, to look like, to look to look good and etc. 4.Prepositional equivalents: to look + prepositions to look at, to look on, to look in, to look into, to look to, to look towards and etc. For instance: 1.The cornstalks looked golden. 2.He looked up and down. 3.It looked like a round dry little pellet. 4.Let`s look in this hou

We can say this based on short informations about this verb that the verb “to look” has a number of quality. Like other verbs, the verb “look” is also used in the following grammatical categories: 1.In the category of perfect: I have looked him before (J.S.Th) 2.In the category of voice: a) active voice: Tom looked down into the water (J.S.Th); b) passive voice: She was looked questioningly by him (J.S.Th). 3.In the category of person: He looks crazy (J.S.Th). 4.In the category of tense: a)past indefinite: They looked down on the painted Desert; b)present indefinite: That looks good; c)negative form: You don`t look like the right fella to me; d)present continuous: She was looking at him and etc. So the word “look” may be used in different positions. 1.4. “Look” as a noun. The means of the

1.they all have the same lexical-grammatical meaning: substance/thing 2.according to their form – they have two grammatical categories: number and case 3.they all have typical stem-building elements: -er, -ist, -ship, -merit, -hood… 4.typical combinability with other words: most often left-hand combinability 5.function – the most characteristic feature of nouns is they can be observed in all syntactic functions but predicate. Some words about the distribution of nouns. Because of the fact that nouns express or denote substance/thing, their distribution is bound with the words which express the quality of substance, their number, their actions and their relation to the other words/nouns/in English. When the quality of nouns are described we make use of adjectives: Energetic crisis; bad look

There are many definitions of the word “to look”: Look – 1.a)the act of looking; b)glance: He gave me a look. There were angry looks from the crowd. May I take a look at your paper? 2.examine: The doctor had a good look at his throat. We must take a long look at these terms. 3.a)have a look for; b)search for: 4.expression: There was a look of horror on his face. A look of pleasure came over her features. 5.a)the expression of the countenance; b)physical appearance; Especially: attractive physical appearance – usually used in plural. c)a combination of design features giving a unified appearance: He had an odd look about him. He has given the shop a new look. This house has a homely look. This is the new look in evening wear. I don`t like the look of things! A new look in women`s fashions.

1.I don`t think you left it here, but I`ll take a look around for it. 2.I took a quick look, but he wasn`t there. 3.her new haircut makes her look young. Now we make the linguistic analysis of the some sentences with “to look”. In this sentences “to look” is used as a noun. For instance: They are lookers. They – is the subject of the sentence. It is expressed by a personal pronoun in the first person plural. Are lookers – is the predicate of the sentence. It is expressed by “are” to be in the present simple, for first person plural; and “lookers” is the noun in the plural also. This predicate is called “noun-predicate”. 1.5. “Look” as a verb. Classification of verbs according to their syntactic functions. The verbs are divided into 3 groups: 1.Notional verbs; 2.Seminotional verbs; 3.Auxili

He looked over at Joad – it is simple extended declarative sentence. He – is the subject of the sentence. It is expressed by a personal pronoun in the third person singular. looked over – is the predicate of the sentence. It is expressed by the verb “to look” in the past simple tense. at Joad – is the transitive object of the sentence. It is expressed by “at” preposition of direct and “Joad” is a proper noun. 2.Seminotional verbs are divided into two groups: a)The conjunction; b)Modal verbs. According to their means the conjunction verbs included the following verbs: to be, to feel, to become, to grow, to get, to turn, to remain, to keep, to stay, to hold, to continue and etc. If the verbs lose their lexic means and they come as the conjunction verbs, this action is called ……… The verb “lo

The verb “look” is used following means in combination and non- combination states. I. 1. [try to see, observe, use one`s eyes]; Look! He isn`t looking; I did it while he wasn`t looking. 2. [turn the eyes in some direction]; look about/around/round; look away from somebody; look back/behind; lookup/upward; look up [from the book]; look forward; look in; look aside; look out; look right and left; look the other way; look another way. 3. [have a view, be turned in some direction]; look in some direction; the house(the window, etc) looks South(West, East and etc). II. 1. [see I 2]; look at somebody, something(at each other, at his fellow- passengers, at the map, etc); look at somebody, something in some manner(closely, fixedly, intently, straight, sideways, critically, questioningly, with int

2. [consider, regard, observe]; look at something(at this matter, at somebody`s motives, at the offer, at all the facts, at the problem in this light, etc); a new way looking at things; look up(on) somebody, something as somebody, something(upon him as one`s teacher, upon the country as one`s second home, etc); look upon somebody as a father(as a mother, etc) He looked upon the remark as an insult; look upon something as useful(as necessary, as insulting, as uncomradely, etc). 3. [take care of, guard, watch]; look after somebody, something(after children, after an old man, after a dog, etc); He is able to look after himself; look after something(after somebody`s house, after the garden, after the fire, after somebody`s luggage, etc). 4. [search for, see and try to find]; look for somebody,

8. [see I 3]; the house(the window, etc) looks on/to something (on a river, on a street, on a garden, to the East, to the South, etc). III. [seem, suggest by looks to be]; look somebody, something(an honest man, every inch a gentlemen, a fool, etc); look oneself again; look one`s age(one`s years) She looks about fifty; She is thirty but she doesn`t look it. IV. [see I 2]; look somebody in the face(in the eye) in some manner; look somebody full(straight, frankly, etc) in the face(in the eye). V. [see II 3]; 1.be looked after: The children are wonderfully looked after there. 2. [see II 2]; be looked upon as something, somebody: He is looked upon as a likely candidate. VI. [see III]; look in some way(young, old, thin, funny, ugly, happy, promising, charming, etc); look well(ill); he looked st

X. [see III]; it looks as if/as though(as if he were afraid, as if he wouldn`t go, etc); Look alive! Live sharp! Look here!; look on the bright(sunny) side of things; look before you leap; look for a needle in a haystack; look a gift horse in the mouth. 1.6. “Look” as an adjective. The characteristic features of the adjective as a part of speech are as follows: 1.their lexical-grammatical meaning of attributes or we may say that they express property of things(persons); 2.from the morphological view point they have the category of degrees of comparison; 3.from the point of view of their combinability they combine with nouns, as it has already been stated above, they express the properties of things. The words that express things we call nouns. It seems to be important to differentiate the

The sun rose red. The sun rose extremely red. 4.the stem-building affixes are: -ful, -less, -ish, -ous, -ive, -ir, un-, -pre-, in-,….; 5.their syntactic functions are: attribute and predicative. It is important to point out that in the function of an attribute the adjectives are in most cases used in pre- position; in post-position they are very seldom: time immemorial, chance to come. The lady was a gloomy-looking. 1.7. “Look” as a participle. Word-combination (or phrase is a syntactically connected group of notional words within the limits of sentence but which is not a sentence itself. 8 B.Ilyish defines it as follows: “phrase is every combination of two or more words which is a grammatical unit but is not an analytical form of some word and further Ilyish writes that “ the difference b

which this phrase refers. In this case that sentence will become another sentence as per the concept of the author. Following L.Barkhudarov`s conception we distinguish three types of word-combinations: 1.Subordinate phrases the IC of which are connected by a subordination bond: cold water, reading a book, famous detective, smoked fish, and so on. 2.Co-ordinate phrases the IC of which are connected by a coordination bond: slowly but steadily, pen and pencils. 3.Predicative phrases the IC of which are connected by a predication bond: for you to go, breakfast over… When he turned his head the two behind could see his lips moving. But phrases do not always consist of two elements; their IC may contain more than one word, e.g. Three black dogs In the same phrase we find 3 words. IC are connecte

structure of the first type, there is always a word that connects the constituents of the phrase while in the second type there`s no connector. The Types of Subordinate Phrases. The subordinate phrases are classified according to the head word. Thus there are noun phrases(cold water), verb phrases(saw a house), adjective phrases(extremely red) and so on. The Types of Predicative Phrases. The predicate phrases fall under: Infinitive predicative phrases: I asked him to stay. Gerundial predicative phrases: I saw him running. Absolute predicative phrases: Everybody stood up, glass in hand. As it is seen from the examples the types of predicative phrases depend on what non-finite form of the verb verbal part of them is expressed by. There are a lot of definitions concerning the word-group. The

1.As a naming unit it differs from a compound word because the number of constituents in a word-group corresponds to the number of different denotates: a black bird(2), a blackbird(1); a loud speaker(2), a loudspeaker(1). 2.Each component of the word-group can undergo grammatical changes without destroying the identity of the whole unit: to see a house-to see houses. 3.A word-group is a dependent syntactic unit, it isn`t a communicative unit and has no intonation of its own. Classification of word-groups Word-groups can be classified on the basis of several principles: a)According to the type f syntagmatic relations: coordinate (you and me), subordinate (to see a house, a nice dress), predicative (his coming, for him to come). b)According to the structure: simple (all elements are obligato

The formation of the subordinate word-group depends on the valency of its constituents. Valency is a potential ability of words to combine. Actual realization of valency in speech is called combinality. Noun word-groups are widely spread in English. This maybe explained by a potential ability of the noun to go into combinations with practically all parts of speech. The NP consist of a noun-head and an adjunct or adjuncts with relations of modification between them. Three types of modifications are distinguished here: a)Premodification that comprises all the units placed before the head: two smart hard-working students. Adjuncts used in pre-head position are called preposed adjuncts. b)Post modification that comprises all the units placed after the head: students from Boston. Adjuncts used

2)object relations: health service, women hater; 3)adverbial relations: a) of time: morning star; b)place: country house; c)comparison: button eyes; d)purpose: tooth brush. It is important to remember that the noun adjunct is usually marked by a stronger stress than the head. Of special interest is a kind of “grammatical idiom” where the modifier is reinterpreted into the head: a devil of a man, an angel of a girl. NPs with post-posed may be classified according to the way of connection into preposition less and prepositional. The basic prepositionless NPs with post- posed adjuncts are: Nadj-tea strong, NVen-the shape unknown, NVing-the girl smiling, ND-the man downstairs, NVinf-a book to read, Nnum-room ten. The pattern of basic prepositional NPs is N1prep. N2. The most common preposition

According to the structure VPs may be basic or simple (to take a book) all elements are obligatory, expanded (to read and translate the text, to read books and newspapers) and extended (to read an English book). 1.8. “Look” as a gerund. In English, the gerund is identical in form to the present participle (ending in - ing ) and can behave as a verb, within a clause (so that it may be modified by an adverb or have an object), but the clause as a whole (sometimes consisting of only one word, the gerund itself) acts as a noun within the larger sentence. For example: Eating this cake is easy. Other examples of the gerund: I like swimming . (direct object) Swimming is fun . ( subject ) Not all nouns that are identical in form to the present participle are gerun

I like fencing . (gerund, an activity, could be replaced with "to fence") The white fencing adds to the character of the neighborhood. (deverbal, could be replaced with an object such as "bench") These verbs are followed by a to -infinitive only in the passive or with an object pronoun. People consider her to be the best. – She is considered to be the best. I am considering sleeping over, if you do not mind. begin, continue, start; hate, like, love, prefer With would , the verbs hate, like, love , and prefer are usually followed by the to - infinitive. I would like to work there. (more usual than working ) When talking about sports, there is usually a difference in meaning between the infinitive and gerund (see the next section). With a cha

try : When a to -infinitive is used, the subject is shown to make an effort at something, attempt or endeavor to do something. If a gerund is used, the subject is shown to attempt to do something in testing to see what might happen. Please try to remember to post my letter. I have tried being stern, but to no avail. stop, quit : When the infinitive is used after `stop` or `quit`, it means that the subject stops one activity and starts the activity indicated by the infinitive. If the gerund is used, it means that the subject stops the activity indicated by the gerund. She stopped to smell the flowers. She stopped smelling the flowers. Or more concisely: She stopped walking to smell the flowers. He quit working there to travel abroad. Gerunds preceded by a genitive Because of its noun prop

Simple words help us express our message clearly. Too many complex words are like hurdles in a race, barriers to understanding which slows readers down. Replacing complex words with simpler words whenever possible lets our readers concentrate on our ideas and information. Complex: We will endeavor to assist you. Simple: We will try to help you. We may need to use a more complex word to give a more precise meaning. We may also find some words as prohibit subject matter. For example, we may find it easier to keep to simpler words in a memo or letter than in a report or regulation. However, use shorter, simpler words as the basis of our writing and save longer or complex words for when they are essential. For more guidance, see our long list of words to avoid and their simple Alternatives. Fo

of these compound words if the sentence context doesn`t give enough clues of meaning. Some compounds are made up of a determining and a determined part, which may be called “the determinant” and “the determinatum”. 10 The determinatum is the grammatically most important part which undergoes inflection. For instance: sunbeams, brothers-in-law, passers-by. In English, the gerund is identical in form to the present participle (ending in - ing ) and can behave as a verb, within a clause (so that it may be modified by an adverb or have an object), but the clause as a whole (sometimes consisting of only one word, the gerund itself) acts as a noun within the larger sentence. For example: Eating this cake is easy Verb patterns with the gerund Verbs that are often followed

advise, recommend and forbid : These are followed by a to -infinitive when there is an object as well, but by a gerund otherwise. The police advised us not to enter the building, for a murder had occurred. ( Us is the object of advised .) The police advised against our entering the building. ( Our is used for the gerund entering .) consider, contemplate and recommend : These verbs are followed by a to -infinitive only in the passive or with an object pronoun. People consider her to be the best. – She is considered to be the best. I am considering sleeping over, if you do not mind. begin, continue, start; hate, like, love, prefer With would , the verbs hate, like, love , and prefer are usually followed by the to - infinitive. I would like to work th

2.look-in – is a compound. It`s lexical mean is “a chance to take part in something”. For instance: I didn`t get a look-in. 3.look-out – is a compound word. It`s lexical means are: a)a place from which to keep watch: be on the look-out for a house. b)a person keeping watch for danger and trouble(watchman). c)(your lookout) – your own concern: it`s a poor look-out for us. 4.look-see- is a compound word. It`s lexical mean is “quick glance, rapid look” and etc. 5.looker – is a compound. It means “a person with a specified appearance”. For instance: She is not a bad looker. 6.looking-glass – is a compound noun. It`s mean is “a mirror”. For instance: Alice through the Looking-glass. As to morphological criteria of compounds, they are manifold.Pr.A.I.Smirnitsky introduced the criterion of formal

criterion: the first element of black market or black list(of persons under suspicion) cannot be modified by “very” either. 14 This objection holds true for the argument of indivisibility advanced by B.Bloch and G.Trager who point out that we cannot insert any word between the elements of the compound blackbird. 15 The same example black market serves H.Marchand to prove the insufficiency of this criterion. 16 Black market is indivisible and yet everybody admit it is a phrase. With a change in meaning like, love, prefer In some contexts, following these verbs with a to -infinitive when the subject of the first verb is the subject of the second verb provides more clarity than a gerund. I like to box. (I enjoy doing it myself.) I like boxing. (Either I enjoy watching it, I enjoy doing

A verb is a kind of word is usually tells about an action or a state and is the main part of a sentence. Every sentence has a verb. In English, verbs are the only kind of word that changes to show past or present tense. Every language in the world has verbs, but they are not always used in the same ways. They also can have different properties in different languages. For example, in some other languages(e.g. Chinese and Indonesian) verbs do not change for past and present tense. This means the definition above only works well for English verbs. There are 16 verbs used in Basic English. They are: be, do, have, come, go, see, give, take, keep, make, put, send, say, let, get. The word “verb” originally comes from were -, a Proto–Indo–European word meaning “a word”. It comes to English through

Past participle: walked She has walked home. You should notice that some of the verb forms look the same. You can say they have the same shape. For example, the plain present and plain form of “walk” have the same shape. The same is true for the past and the past participle. But these different forms can have different shapes in other verbs. For example, the plain present of “be” is usually “are” but the plain form is “be”. Also, the past of “eat” is “ate”, but the Past Participle is “eaten”. When you look for a verb in the dictionary, it is usually the plain form that you look for. An English sentence must have at least one primary-form verb. Each main clause can only have one primary-form verb. English has two main kinds of verbs: Normal verbs(called lexical verbs) and Auxiliary verbs. T

Have you seen him? Non-modal verbs: I did see it I did see it He is sleeping He is sleeping There are several auxiliary verbs: To do (do, does, did) To be (am, is, are, was, were): creates the progressive tense. To have (have, has, had): creates a perfect tense. The follow verbs are modal auxiliaries: can, could, may, might, must, shall, should. Auxiliary verbs also inflect for negation. Usually this is done by adding “not” or “n`t”. You shouldn`t be here. He isn`t at home. We haven`t start yet. Sometimes the verb “do”. It doesn`t really change the meaning. I do talk(present). I did go(past). It is also used in the negative when no other auxiliary verbs are used. I don`t talk(present) I didn`t go(past). Many other languages do not use the verb “do” as an auxiliary verb. They use the Simpl

Many people think that all different ways of using verbs are all different tenses. This is not true. There are three main systems related to the verb: tense, aspect, and mood. Tense is mainly used to say when the verb happens: in the past, present and future. Some languages have all three tenses, some have only two, and some have no tenses at all. English and Japanese for example have only two tenses: past and present. Chinese and Indonesian verbs do not show tense. Instead they use other words in the sentence to show when the verb happens. English tenses: Present tense: I can swim well; She walks home; He runs quickly; Do you live here? Past tense: I could swim well; She walked home; He ran quickly; Did you live here? Aspect usually shows us things like whether the action is finished or n

I`ve seen him twice(present perfect). I had lived there for three years(past perfect). The past perfect can be used to express an unrealized hope, wish, etc. He had intended to bake a cake but ran out of flour. She had wanted to buy him a gift but he refused. After “if, wish and would rather” the past perfect can be used to talk about past events that never happened. If only I had been born standing up! I wish you had told me that before. I would rather you had gone somewhere else. Finally, English mood is now usually shown by using “modal verbs”. In the past, English had a full mood system but that has almost completely disappeared. The subjunctive mood now uses the plain form. There is also a form of “be” that is used in conditionals to show that something is not true(e.g. If I were a bi

finite forms (Infinitive, Gerund, P1 and P2) and they are not separate part of speech. Aspect – a category of the word designating primarily the relation of the action to the passage of time, especially in reference to completion, duration and repetition. There two aspects: continuous and common or progressive, definite, expanded in Russian – Imperfective – Perfective: writes – is writing – wrote – was P1 – will write – will be P1 – has written – has been written. Aspects do not always correspond to the aspects in different languages. The verb – tense. The existence of the Tense category is universally recognized. But some problems arise in defining how many tenses there in English. In English there are three (past, present and future) tenses represented by forms: worked, works, will/shall

Words like “to look, to read, to live, to go, to jump are called verbs because of their following features: 1.they express the meanings of action and state; 2.they have the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood, order and posteriority most of which have their own grammatical means; 3.the function of verbs entirely depends on their forms: if they in finite form they fulfill only one function-predicate.but if they are in non-finite form then they call fulfill any function in the sentence but predicate: they may be part of the predicate; 4.verbs can combine actually with all the parts of speech, though they do not combine with articles, with some pronouns. It is important to note that the combinability of verbs mostly depends on the syntactical function of verbs

The classification of verbs can be undertaken from the following points of view: 1.meaning, 2.form-formation, 3.function. 1.There are three basic forms of the verb in English: infinitive, past indefinite and P2. These forms are kept in mind in classifying verbs. 2.There are four types of form-formation: 1.affixation: reads, asked, going….. 2.variation of sounds: run-ran, may-might, bring-brought… 3.suppletive ways: be-is-am-are-was; go-went… 4.analytical means: shall come, have asked, is helped… There are productive and non-productive ways of word-formation in present- day English verbs. Affixation is productive, while variation of sounds and suppletion are non- productive. From the point of view of their meaning verbs fall under to groups: notional and functional. Notional verbs have full

A.Smirnitsky gives the following conditions to recognize suppletive forms of words; 1.When the meaning of words are identical in their lexical meaning. 2.When they mutually complement one another, having no parallel opposemes. 3.Whenother words of the same class build up a given opposemes without suppletivity, i.e. from one root. Thus, we recognize the words: be – am, bad – worse as suppletive because they express the same grammatical meanings as the forms of words: light – lighter, big – bigger, work – worked. Verbs can also be classified from the point of view of their ability of taking objects. In accord with this we distinguish to types of verbs: transitive and intransitive. The former type of verbs are divided into two: a)verbs which are combined with direct object: to have a book, to

called “causative” verbs, verbs intransitive in their origin, but some times used as transitive: to fly a kite, to sail a ship, to nod approval….. The same is found in the construction “cognate object”: to live a long life, to die the death of a hero….. Grammatical categories of verbs. In this question we do not find a generally accepted view-point. B.A.Ilyish identifies six grammatical categories in present-day English verb: tense, aspect, mood, voice, person and number. L.Barkhudarov, D.Steling distinguish only the following grammatical categories: voice, order, aspect and mood. Further they note, that the finite forms of the verb have special means expressing person, number and tense. B.Khaimovich and Rogovskaya: out of the eight grammatical categories of the verb, some are found not on

H.Poustma besides the two voices mentioned above finds one more voice- reflexive. He writes: “It has been observed that the meaning of the Greek medium is normally expressed in English by means of reflexive or, less frequently, by reciprocal pronouns. 17 It is because of this H.Poustma distinguishes in Modern English the third voice. He transfers the system of the Greek grammar into the system of English. He gives the following examples: He got to bed, covered himself up warm and fell asleep. H.Whitehall. This grammarian the traditional terms indirect and direct objects replaced by inner and outer complements (words of position 3 and 4) consequently. The passive voice from his point of view is the mention of the words of position 3 and 4 to position one. The verb is transformed into a word

neuter(“middle”) voice in such sentences as: The door opened. The college was filling up. The conception reminds us Poustma`s view. He writes: “A passive meaning may also not seldom be observed in verbs that have thrown off the reflexive pronoun and have, consequently, become intransitive. Thus, we find it more or less distinctly in the verbs used in: Her eyes filled with tears…” 18 We cannot but agree with arguments against these theories expressed by Khaimovich and Rogovskaya: These theories do not carry much conviction, because: 1.in cases like he washed himself it is not the verb that is reflexive but that pronoun himself used as a direct object; 2.washed and himself are words belonging to different lexemes. They have different lexical and grammatical meanings; 3.if we regard washed hi

passive voice is formed by (be – ed). So the active voice is the unmarked one and the passive-marked. To look – to be looked. The morpheme of the marked form we may call a discontinuous morpheme. From the point of view of some grammarians O.Jespersen, O.Curme, and G.Vorontsova verbs get/become Participle2 are passive constructions. Khaimovich and Rogovskaya seem to be right when they say that in such constructions get/become always retain lexical meanings. Opinions differ in the establishment of the number of moods in English. Below we`ll consider views of some grammarians on the problem. H.Sweet: “By the moods of a verb we understand grammatical forms expressing different relations between subject and predicate”. 19 1.There are two moods in English which oppose to each other Thought – for

G.O.Curme: “Moods are the changes in the form of the verb to show the various ways in which the action or state is thought of by the speaker”. 20 He distinguishes three moods: 1.Indicative Mood. This form represents something as a fact or as in close relation with reality or in interrogative form inquires after a fact. 2.Subjunctive Mood. There are two entirely different kinds of subjunctive forms: the old simple subjunctive and newer forms consisting of a modal auxiliary and a dependent infinitive of the verb to be used. 3.The function of the Subjunctive is to represent something not as an actual reality, but as formed in the mind of the speaker as a desire, wish, volition, plan, conception, thought, sometimes with more or less hope of realization. The present subjunctive is associated wi

on the problem: “The system of the subjunctive mood in Modern English has been and still is in a state of development. There are many elements in it which are rapidly falling into disuse and there are new elements coming into use”. 21 O.Jespersen, argues against Sweet`s definition of Mood, he writes that it would be more correct to say that mood expresses certain attitudes of the mind of the speaker towards the contents of the sentence. P.Whitehall: “Although the subjunctive is gradually dying out of the language, English is rich in devices for expressing one`s psychological moods toward happenings that are imaginary”. Other categories of the verbs. Besides the already discussed categories of the verb, there are some other categories like aspect, order, posteriority, tense and others. Thes

Pluperfect(past p) = pre-preterite + preterite; Future perfect = pre-future + future. Primary and Secondary tenses: He writes: “When we speak of an occurrence as past, we must have some point of time from which to measure it. When we measure the time of an occurrence from the time when we speaking, that is, from the present, the tense which express the time of the occurrence is called a Primary tense. The present, preterite, future and perfect(the present perfect) are primary tenses. He will have informed his friends by the time they (the guests) arrived. He had informed his friends when the guests arrived. Complete and Incomplete tenses. The explanation of this classification of tenses by H.Sweet is vague and confused because he mixes up the lexical and grammatical means, compare: I have

I am writing a letter. O.Jespersen. O.Jespersen`s view of the grammatical tenses in English is illustrated in the table below: After past time: I know of no language which possesses a simple tense for this notion. A usual meaning “obligation” in English most often is expressed by “was to”. Next year she gave birth to a son who was to cause her great anxiety. After future: This has a chiefly theoretical interest and I doubt very much whether forms like I shall be going to rewrite (which emplies nearness in time to the chief future time is of very frequent occurrence). The tense of a verb shows the time of the action: the aspect of a verb deals with the development of the action, while order denotes the order of the actions. When discussing grammatical categories we accepted that a grammatic

defining the grammatical categories we defined it as “at least having two individual forms”). The category of aspect is a system of two-member opposition: continuous and non-continuous: I work – I am working. To be-ing is the morpheme of the continuous meaning. This category is found in all the three tenses. Present: I work – I am working; Past: I worked- I was working; Future: I`ll work – I`ll be working. The means of expression of these categories are arranged in a certain sequence. In the active voice they are arranged in the following way; Tense is expressed in the first component of the predicate: order – in first or second (second if it in the future tense), aspect –in the second or third components. The order means always precede the aspect means if both are found in the predicate.

Chapter 2: The syntactic-semantic and linguistic analysis of the word “look”. The purpose of syntactic analysis is to determine the structure of the input text. This structure consists of a hierarchy of phrases , the smallest of which are the basic symbols and the largest of which is the sentence . It can be described by a tree with one node for each phrase. Basic symbols are represented by leaf nodes, and other phrases by interior nodes. The root of the tree represents the sentence. Computations based on the input can be written with attribute grammar specifications that are based on an abstract syntax. The abstract syntax describes the structure of an abstract syntax tree, much the way the concrete syntax describes the phrase structure of the input. Eli uses a tool, calle

The speech recognizer is able to produce a list of possible words, i.e. a collection of potentially meaningsful sentences or sentence fragments, typically represented as a network (a directed acyclic graph). These potential sentences must be converted into logical expressions (propositions) which the dialog system can understand. This "conversion process" can be divided into two autonomous modules: 1. Syntactic parsing 2. Semantic parsing This suggests the following general model for the the language analysis modules: The syntactic analyzer performs dictionary lookup from the system`s lexical database and applies syntactic rules to these word descriptions. The result of this process, which is called syntactic parsing, is declarative descriptions of the syntactic content (subject, o

are not complete and well-formed sentences, but the dialog system must, of course, be able to analyze and use them. Detailed studies of sentence structure in Norwegian dialogs relevant for telephone based applications have not been carried out. Thus, it is not possible simply to import and use analyses or parsing systems from other sources. However, connections with the Linguistics department at the University of Bergen will be established because this department has experience with fairly realistic grammars used in experimental machine translation systems (but not dialog systems). In addition the project will utilize lexical resources from the NFR- supported project NorKompLeks , chaired by prof. Torbjørn Nordgård at the Linguistics Department, NTNU. Project goals of syntactic analysis:

Even though the semantic analysis produces logical propositions for sentences or sentence fragments, the module must be able to exploit contextual information established at earlier points in the dialog. This is necessary in order to capture the meaning (reference) of anaphoric expressions (e.g. use of pronou(e.g. use of pronouns) and definite descriptions (use of the definite form of nouns and noun phrases). Semantic analysis could in principle take place without previous syntactic analysis, but then input will be a graph containing simple words and not one or more syntactic structures which are delivered by the syntactic parser. The consequence will either be that the semantic analysis fails to agree with the generally accepted principle of compositionality (i.e. the meaning of a sentenc

4. If the syntax module is not realized as a separate project, investigate possibilities for semantic analysis without sufficient syntactic analysis and eventually develop a "minimal" syntax module. Part II: 5. Extract statistical knowledge to be used in disambiguation of sets of logical propositions 6. Implement a case reasoning module which can be attached to the general system. 2.1.1. Active syntactic-semantic features. For example: 1.You got to look after the family. 2.There aren`t nothing to look after . 3.It seemed to look out of a well of horror. 4.I want to look at her. 5.They are lookers . 6.The waitress without looking reached behind her. 7.They were a tall, good-looking man with features like the Roman`s. 8.I went out to look at the cars. 9.I ought to look your stuff ove

1 2 They are lookers. NP1 NP2 2.1.2. Stative syntactic-semantic features. For example: 1.Ma stood looking up and down the street. 2.A middle-aged man stood looking down at the motor. 3.Daisy stood looking after them. 4.Ma stood looking down at the twitching form. 5.The lean man looked puzzled 6. He looked up at her. 7.He looked up at her. 8.Casy looked back at the twitching red face. 9.Ma looked through the flaps. 10.She looked down at the old man again. 69

2.2.1. Agent syntactic-semantic features. For example: 1. A look of annoyance crossed Mae`s face. 2. A look of fear came into his eyes. 3.It wore the truculent look of a bad child`s. 4.There was a look of not prayer. 1 3 2 4 5 A look of annoyance crossed Mae`s face. NP1 NP2 D1 D2 D3 70

2.2.2. Object syntactic-semantic features. For example: 1.Noah walks always with a wondering look on his face. 2.The hard old head came out and tried to look at the pressing finger. 3.Mrs.Dundee turned to look at the new couple. 4.Ma continued to look at the old face. 5.Tom stole a look at him.(intransitive object) 6.There aren`t nothing to look after. 7.Al didn`t turn back to look at her. 8.Watch the look in his eye.(intransitive object) 9.He had twisted his neck to look up at her. 10.I saw one sable looking toward us, toward him, rather.(intransitive object) 71

2.3.1.Qualificative syntactic-semantic features. For example: 1.Late in the afternoon they were back with Karl, his outfit and forty good-looking savages with a pompous headmen. 2.He pointed and I saw the head of a rhino with a long, wonderful-looking horn. 3.He was a very discouraged-looking old man. 1 3 4 5 2 He was a very discouraged-looking old man. NP1 NP2 D1 D2 D3 72

Conclusion. During our research work we studied the structure of the English words. We know that sounds by themselves are not enough to constitute language. It is only when they are grouped into words. The word is the fundamental unit of language representing the things of the real world and the psychological life of man. Each word has its own meaning. Here we are interested in the linguistic analysis of the word “look”. First of all, we studied the grammatical analysis of the words. During studying the word “look” we found out that this word is used much in Modern English. The word “look” is used as a noun, as a verb, as a participle, as an adjective, as a gerund, as an infinitive. “Look” as a noun means an act of looking, a particular appearance, a person`s facial appearance, a style or

2.From the morphological view point they have the category of degrees of comparison. 3.Their syntactic functions are: attribute and predicative. The word “look” as a participle we distinguish the word “look” into the following types: 1)The types of Co-ordinate phrases; 2)The types of Subordinate phrases; 3)The types of predicative phrases. 1.According to the type of syntagmatic relations we distinguish following types of coordinate, subordinate, predicative. 2.According to the structure: simple, expanded. Subordinate word-groups are based on the relations of dependence between the constituents. This presupposes the existence of a governing. According to the nature of their heads, subordinate word-group fall into non- phrases(NP), verb phrases(VP), adjective phrases(AP), adverbial phrases(D

The word “look” as a gerund is also used widely in Modern English. We know that the gerund is identical in form to the present participle and can behave as a verb, within the clause acts as a noun within the larger sentence. Here we tried to prove the word “look” as a gerund may be the important syntactic-semantic construction. The next task was to study “look” as an infinitive. We tried to explain the infinitive in the sentence. In the second we analyzed the word “look” syntactically and syntactic- semantically. The purpose of syntactic analysis is to determine the structure of the input text. In the sphere of syntax we have to look for syntactical synonyms differing from each other by their stylistic coloring. We may look for two sets of cases: 1.Each of the two syntactical synonyms has

Theoritical literature . 1.I.A. Karimov, “ Uzbekistan`s Own Way of Renovation and Progress” (Tashkent: "Uzbekistan", 1992), pp. 60-62. 2. Ibid. , p. 64. 3. I.A. Karimov, “ The Basic Principles of Socio-political and Economic Development of Uzbekistan . The Motherland Is Sacred for Everybody” (Tashkent: "Uzbekistan", 1996), p. 34. 4. I.A. Karimov, “ Law Guarantee of Our Great Future. Our Goal Is a Free and Blossoming Motherland” (Tashkent: "Uzbekistan", 1994), p. 94. 5. I.A. Karimov, “ Our Way Is the Way of Independence and Progress. Our Aim Is a Free and Blossoming Motherland” (Tashkent: "Uzbekistan", 1996), p. 226. 6 .А.И.Смирницкий “Лексикология английского языка” Москва 1956, стр-33. 7. М.Мухин “Лингвистический анализ. Теоритечиский и

13.H.Marchand “The categories and types of Present day English word-formation” Wiesbaden 1960, p 11. 14.I.V.Arnold “The English word” Moscow 1973. 15. Иофик.Л.Л. “Сложное предложение в новоанглийском языке” Л.1968. 16. J.Buranov, A.Muminov “A practical course in English Lexicology” Tashkent1990. 17.Jespersen.O “Essentials of English grammar” Lnd.1933. 18.Jespersen.O. “The Philosophy of Grammar” Lnd.1935. 19.Khaimovich B, B.Rogovskaya “A Course in English Grammar” M 1957. 20.L.Bloomfield “Language” p 232. 21.M.Irisqulov, A.Kuldashev “Theoritical Grammar of English language” Toshkent 2008. 22.M.G`apporov “Ingliz tili grammatikasi” Toshkent 2006. 23.Poustma H.A. “Grammar of the English Language” Groningen 1996. 24.Qiyomov Ro`zi, Qiyomova Go`zal “Hozirgi zamon ingliz tilidagi after predlogli b

28.S.Ullman “Language and Style” Oxford: Basil Blackwell 1964. 29.S.Ullman “Words and their use” London 1951. 30.S.Potter “Modern Linguistics” London 1957. p 91. 31.Sweet.H “A New English Grammar, Logical and Historical” Oxford. 32.V.Ilyish “The structure of Modern English” Leningrad 1971. 33.Vivien Tartter “Language Process” NY 1986, p 89. 34.Whitehall H. “Structural Essentials of English” NY 1956. 35.www.crvp.org/book/…/chapter_x.htm- 36.www.one look.com/ 37.dictionary.reference.com/ 38.wiki.answers.com>…> 39.www.englisch_hilfen.de>…>Grammar- 40.ru.wiktionary.org/wiki/ Индекс : Английский …/o- 41.www.msu.edu/~defores1/gre/sufx/gre-suffx.htm-. Original literatures. 78

1.Campbell, Van Gundy, Shrodes “Patterns for living” NY 1946. 2.Ernest Hemingway “A Farewell to arms” Leningrad 1971. 3.Ernest Hemingway “Green Hills of Africa” Leningrad 1962. 4.”Eleven American children” NY 1975. 5.Jmpha Cusak “Say no to death” Moscow 1966. 6.Jack London “Martin Edin”. 7.Joanne Omang “Incident at Akabal” Boston, New York, London 1992. 8.Mark Twen “The prince and the pauper” 1989. 9.Mark Twen “two stories”. 10.John Steinbeck “The Grapes of Wrath” Moscow 1978. 11.J.Hoff “Song of the silent sharp” 12. P.Abrahams “The path of Tunder”. 13.Shakespeare “Romeo and Juliet” Moscow 1972. 14.W.Saroyan “My name is Abraham”. Dictionaries . 79

1.А.В.Кунин “Англо-cсский фразеологический словарь” Москва 1984. 2. Catherine Soanes, Sara Hawker and Julia Eliot “Oxford dictionary of current English” Fourth edition, Oxford University Press 2006. 3.O.S.Akhmanova and Elizabeth, A.M.Wilson “Russian-English Dictionary” Moscow 1978. 4.Paul Falla “The Oxford Russian Dictionary” Art Flex 2010. 5.Ulug`bek Isaqov, Mansur Raximov and others. “English-Uzbek Dictionary” Tashkent 2005. 80

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