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5700 ПродажThe role of sentence structure in creating rhythm in prose
![2.2 Methods and Means of Forming Rhythmic and Intonational Skills of
Pupils
Quite naturally, flawless intonation is an ornament of speech sounding in any
language. But we should not dramatize the situation of teaching intonation skills at
today’s secondary school. Therefore, it would be much better to teach pupils basic
model phrases in the approximated performance than a single model of intonation in
perfect.
But we should not believe that the problems of intonation are not worth
attention at all. We just need to limit teaching intonation skills to minimum models.
The following methods of teaching intonational skills are the most effective:
1) use of exercises to develop pupils’ speech tempo. Intonation of an English
phrase is good only at the appropriate tempo while, as usual, pupils’ speech tempo is
very low;
2) use of tongue-twisters, proverbs and sayings. It is important to ensure that
pupils utter them in one breath, without interruption and unnecessary stoppages that
can disrupt a phrase intonation pattern: Money spent on the brain is never spent in
vain. Then we move from phrasal to super-phrasal level when in one breath some
communicative extract of 2-4 sentences is pronounced [27; 96].
Teaching intonation skills not within the language environment is an extremely
difficult challenge. An important reserve for improving skills of intonation is to do
exercises in expressive reading. It is useful to carry out such work on the material of
dialogic nature texts with the following sequence of training activities:
– exemplary reading;
– practicing phonetics;
– practicing intonation;
– frame-up practicing;
– framing-up a dialogue.
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![moving the hand down). After the type of the sentence is argued and tied with
intonation, missing punctuation can be added [27; 107]. The next game, “Boaster”, is
to involve the emotional component. The name is conventional and it expresses only
one of possible colors. We can use cards from the previous game, after all punctuation
marks were added. The task of a pupil is to pronounce an affirmative sentence with
boastful intonation, analyzing sounding of the phrase. Particular attention is paid to
how the emotional coloring is achieved. In this case the pupil should maintain a
falling tone, expressing relative completeness of the sentence. Then the pupil is asked
to pronounce the interrogative sentence with a tone of annoyance. Here a rising tone
expressing its incompleteness and the lack of flatness should be maintained. The
following emotional coloring is recommended: joy, anger, rage, fear, etc
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![13. Zemskaya E.A. Language as an activity. Morpheme. Word. Speech / E.A.
Zemskaya. – M., 2004. – 290 p.
14. Zinder L.R. General phonetics / L.R. Zinder. – M., 1979. – 456 p.
15. Kleiner Yu.A. Problems of prosody / Yu.A. Kleiner. – St. Petersburg : St.
Petersburg State University Publishing House, 2002. – 367 p.
16. Kodzasov S.V. Levels, processes and units in intonation / S.V. Kodzasov //
Problems of phonetics. Issue III. – Moscow : Nauka, 1999. – 293 p.
17. Kuznetsova E.E. Fundamentals of phonetics of the English language / E.E.
Kuznetsova. – St. Petersburg, 2000. – 309 p.
18. Leontieva S.F. Theoretical phonetics of the modern English language:
textbook / S.F. Leontieva. – M. : Manager, 2002. – 335 p.
19. Lisenko D.M. About the division of a continuous stream of speech into words
by a person // Mechanisms of speech formation and perception of complex
sounds / D.M. Lisenko. – M., 1966. – 294 p.
20. Merkulova E.M. English. Introduction to the course of phonetics / E.M.
Merkulova. – St. Petersburg : publishing house of the Union, 2005. – 224s.
21. Potapova R.K. On the modern approach to understanding models of speech
communication / R.K. Potapova // Functional prosody of the text. Tr. MGPIII
named after M. Torez. Issue 201. – M., 1982. – 298 p
22. Sokolova M.A. Theoretical phonetics of the English language / M.A. Sokolova.
– M. : VLADOS, 2006. – 208 p.
23. Trubetskoy N.S. Fundamentals of phonology / N.S. Trubetskoy. – M., 2000. –
478 p.
24. Phonetics of spontaneous speech / [Edited by N.D. Svetozarova]. – L., 1988. –
208s.
25. Shevtsova E.E. Technologies for the formation of the intonation side of
speech / E.E. Shevtsova, L.V. Zabrodina. – M. : AST: Astrel, 2009. – 222 p.
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![of evaluation, including expressive. It is expressed by differences in the level of tone
and by means [17; 54].
The sentence always deals with a lot of intonation expressed by semantic
features. Variety of semantic combinations corresponds to a large number of different
intonation patterns.
Falling intonation. It is the most common type of standard unemphatic
intonation in English. It is used on the last stressed syllable of the utterance in the
following cases:
1) at the end of exclamatory sentences;
2) at the end of short declarative sentences;
3) at the end of imperative sentences expressing an order, a command or a
prohibition;
4) at the end of special questions, beginning with interrogative pronouns:
What? When? Where? Who? Why? How?
5) at the end of the second part of an alternative question, involving a choice of
two options: Were you at the cinema or at the theatre last week?
6) at the end of the first part of the tag question, which is a declarative sentence:
You know him, don't you?
7) at the end of the second part of the tag question, when the questioner is sure
about the first part of the statement, he does not expect to get any additional
information, but only wishes to confirm that the statement is true: It's warm today,
isn't it?
8) in a reciting greeting at the meeting;
9) in the highlighting the addressing at the beginning of a sentence at the end:
Pete, where is your pen?
10) in the highlighting the application at the end of the sentence: This is my
friend, an artist.
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![Pupils get to know the basic rhythm and intonation patterns in the process of
their mastering speech patterns, which at the same time are structural types of
sentences [27; 101].
The main difficulty is the division of a sentence into rhythm and intonation
groups and their correct sound framing – pronouncing in one breath, without
interruption, with one stress, and a simultaneous increase / decrease of tone and
pronouncing the sentence as a whole. In work on rhythm and intonation patterns is
particularly evident the unity of imitation and explanation as a way of presenting new
material [14; 123].
Explanations of the teacher, which should have practical advice nature, may be
built both deductively and inductively. In the first case, he clearly sets a number of
similar examples, explaining the features of stress, melody, etc., in the second – he
also sets a number of similar examples, but now he makes pupils themselves to come
to the correct conclusion (rule) on their own with a help of his ancillary questions.
The inductive way is believed to be more efficient (although it requires much time),
especially at the beginning of training, since it provides better digesting of heard
patterns and develops ear of students, drawing their attention to the sides of speech,
which might otherwise stay unnoticed, despite advance mentioning them [25; 99].
The next stage of work on rhythm is working on a text, as there is a rhythmic
system in the text. As the material and illustration short texts of children’s poems can
be taken: they are well-digested by people of all ages, represent a significant part of
culture of the country the language of which is studied, easy for working on rhythm.
Let’s begin with analysis of a poem which in many collections is traditionally
included to a compilation of children’s poems.
The sun has set,
And now anew
With fallen dew
The grass is wet.
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![10) an ultimate “dumb” r (or a combination re) is spoken together with a vowel,
if the next word is started with it [19; 71].
In English not only these groups of words are spoken together but also whole
sentences making up one meaning group and therefore containing no pauses.
However, the implementation of the rules of conjoint readings should not lead to
distortion of the meaning of the phrase uttered. Sometimes while careless conjoint
reading a transition of consonants from the preceding to the following syllable may
occur, and this can lead to ambiguous interpretation [12; 19].
In order to maintain the rhythmic structure of speech very often a
strengthening or weakening of verbal or phrasal stress takes place. This occurs in the
following cases:
1) if two or more unstressed words are uttered, some of them can be
pronounced with stress: As you say. But: As Bob say;
2) if there are two or more stressed words side by side, some of them may lose
its stress: Send him away! But: Send Bob away!
3) in sentences with numerals having two stresses;
4) in words having two principal stresses, one of them can be mitigated
partially or completely, if you want to oppose one word to the other (an emphatic
sentence): Is he upstairs or downstairs?
5) complete reduction of one of a few stresses also occurs when it is required
by rhyme in a poetic work .
Rhyme is a harmony of all lines of a verse, which is a rhythmic repetition based
on sound similarity of stressed syllables in the rhyming words. Let’s set an example.
“O friend unseen, unborn, unknown,
Student of our sweet English tongue,
Read out my words as night alone:
I was a poet; I was young” [25; 59].
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![11) at the end of the subordinate clause, standing before the main, if the last
sentence is pronounced with a rising tone: When you come home, will you call me?
[13; 77].
Falling intonation is used for asking or giving information in a normal, quiet,
unemphatic sense. At the same time, falling intonation holds certain emotions, such as
completeness, finality, certainty. Falling intonation sounds more emphatically,
confidently and persuasively than rising intonation.
High fall is a version of standard falling intonation. It is used for additional
accenting in informal situations to show live interest and friendliness in declarative
and exclamatory sentences, such as greetings. High fall starts higher than a standard
fall, the stress of it is stronger and the stressed syllable is louder. Although this type of
tone is wide-spread in colloquial speech, those who learn English should use it
carefully and not too often, because it is very emphatic and expressive [3; 39].
Sometimes standard intonation models can be changed. It is important to
understand what such a change may tell about. A declarative sentence spoken with
falling intonation gives information, while a declarative one spoken with rising
intonation becomes a matter of surprise or implies a request to repeat. A special
question with falling intonation asks information, while special one spoken with
rising intonation tells of high interest and astonishment on the part of the speaker or
implies a request to repeat. A general question asked with rising intonation asks some
information and requires an answer “yes” or “no”, while a general one spoken with
falling intonation shows a speaker’s confidence to get an affirmative answer. Asking
by the means of a general question with rising intonation is normal and polite, while
asking with falling intonation sounds like an order or command and can be rude.
Those who learning English should understand what changes of the standard
intonational models may tell about, but in their own speech it is much more better to
use the standard models of intonation.
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![Speech melody is the change of speech pitch. In speech melody the following
items can be distinguished: range, register, terminal tone, melodic scale and pre-tact
[24; 84].
Range and register can be viewed at two levels: at the level of individual
expression and the level of general characteristics of speaker’s voice. Tonal range is
the interval between the highest and lowest tonal points. Range of speaker’s voice, or
total range, can be defined as the interval between the highest and lowest points of
speaker’s voice. There exist several registers. Most of all they are divided into three
groups, sometimes into four (by American linguistics) [24; 96].
The division of speech melody to registers is relative, since the dimensions of
human range of various language speakers are different. It seems reasonable to adopt
a three-level division of total range, as such division is the most convenient and
justifiable, as high and low one opposed to each other should have some middle point.
Therefore, in total range three registers can be distinguished: high, medium and low.
Each of these registers (let’s call them total registers) can be divided into other three
parts (high, medium and low). Let’s reserve a term “register” for them. Forth we’re
going to speak of middle total register. Graphically, ranges and registers can be
imagined as horizontal lines [24; 101].
Middle total register is typical for normal conversational speech, which is often
called neutral, unemotional. This name hardly complies with reality, since speech is
always emotional. We can only talk about varying degrees of emotional intensity.
Emotional speech can be considered a Speech in which some easily recognizable
emotions and attitudes of a speaker are expressed, but without much emphasis, can be
considered as emotional.
If we try to measure a range of musical tones, then so-called middle range is
within one and a half octaves. Total (wide) range is measured by 2,5-3 octaves. Range
less than an octave can be considered narrow. Since these data are confirmed by
numerous studies conducted in different languages, it is reasonable to assume that the
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![Each little bird
Has sunk to rest,
Within its nest
No song is heard [27; 107].
A poem is written in disyllabic form and consists of eight lines. The line is
clearly framed as a rhythmic unit, first of all with stress and melody prosodic
components. Calm, going down melodic contour, ending with a falling tone is
repeated from line to line, creating a clear rhythm of the lines. Commensurability of
lines enhances their role as rhythmic units.
The poem is divided into two quatrains. This division is carried out by a long
pause (longer than the line spacing), the fracture of tone (tone level of the fifth line is
higher than tone level of the fourth one), reducing volume by the end of the fourth
line and increase of volume by the end of the fifth line. Significant role in bringing
together four lines is played by circle rhyme.
Mentioned features make the quatrains similar and comparable, in other words,
help regard them as rhythmic units.
The poem also can be divided to two-line fragments. This is done by increasing
of isochronisms of two-line fragments in comparison with the line and thanks to stage
placing of the lines within the two-line fragment (the first line is on higher tonal level
than the second, the third is on higher tonal level than the fourth). Thus, the rhythm of
this poem is based on the alternation of rhythmic groups, lines and quatrains.
Such detailed analysis of rhythmic organization of the poem has been required
to show the systemic nature of rhythm. On the example of this poetic work clear
rhythmic structure spearing all phonetic levels can be seen. That is why poetry is a
good material for the development of English rhythmic speech skills. It makes
learning the frequency of a basic unit (rhythmic group), as well as the frequency of
larger units, easier.
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![Now we turn to the analysis of rhythmic organization of a prose text. It is
advisable to choose descriptive text, wide-spread in practice of foreign languages
teachers. Let’s analyze the text about the country the language of which is studied.
The British Isles consist of England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland and many
small islands chiefly to be found in the west. The total area is about 120,000 square
miles, i.e. one thirty of the size of Europe.
The west coast is washed by the Atlantic Ocean and the Irish Sea, the east coast
by the North Sea and the south coast by the English Channel [27; 88].
The text contains two super-phrasal unities which are called, respectively, 9 and
7 syntagmas. Their length varies, but not in a significant range.
If we compare the super-phrasal unities, then we can see that in the first one
syntagmas are more a varying in duration, but more similar in their stress and melodic
organization (descending scale and falling tone dominate here); the second super-
phrasal unity syntagmas are more commensurate but 3 of 7 syntagmas are
pronounced with a rising tone. Hence the second super-phrasal unity syntagmas have
more varying melodic framing. This variability, at the same time, has a peculiar
rhythm, since syntagmas of ascending ending alternate with syntagmas of descending
ending. The analysis of the poem and descriptive text shows that the syntagmas of a
prose text have similar framing and have commensurability (frequency). The more
this commensurability is expressed, the more varying stress and melodic organization
of the text can be.
It’s also important to remember that managing of voice (while maintaining the
correctness of separate sounds) is a very difficult task for many pupils, and quality of
being reproduced patterns largely depends on how they hear these patterns. For this
purpose, it is recommended to use and affordable means of visibility – to point the
direction of tone by the hand, to knock rhythm, etc. The task of maintaining
intonation skills at the appropriate level sets high demands to the teacher’s speech in
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![general and to the level of intonation in particular. In this sense the teacher’s speech
should be exemplary [27; 43].
In result of doing a set of preparatory exercises the development of the
following skills is achieved:
1) to distinguish physical properties and perceive quality of intonation;
2) to correlate intonation with the semantic content of speech;
3) to distinguish the communicative types of sentences;
4) to differentiate intonational features of a foreign language;
5) to correlate intonation with the context and situation;
6) to have intonation ear;
7) to use probabilistic forecasting at the level of phrases and text [8; 199].
During the work on intonation of English speech analytical-synthetic method is
used, the essence of such method is synthesis and use of intonation means based on
the analysis of practical speech experience [20; 24].
To show intonation changes, we can also use a graphical method. The words of
the sentence are indicated by conventional symbols, and the direction and intensity of
tonal variations – by straight or curved arrows. For this purpose phrases not differing
in linguistic means should be used. Most of all, interrogative and affirmative
sentences consisting of two words:
“Mom is at home.”
“Is mom at home?"
The subject of this analysis is the change of voice tone at the end of the
sentence: falling in the first case and rising in the second.
For the assimilation of rising and falling tones we can suggest a game “A
question – An answer”. A child is given a card on which some sentences consisting of
two words are written, and there is no punctuation at the end of them. The child must
identify, if it is a question or an answer. He should pronounce the sentence aloud with
appropriate intonation and a certain (rising tone – moving the hand up, falling tone –
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![INTRODUCTION
The president’s decree dated 13 September 2017 “On establishing a
commission for the popularization of reading and the raising of book-reading culture
and for the development of the system of the publication and distribution of books” is
a program document for working in these spheres. This information-library centre
will provide population with more than 223 thousand books in the same time. The
building of special rooms and halls for reading is on process. It is believed that this
will satisfy the requirements of youth with supporting them any data about science,
history, modern life, literature, education and business [1].
During last years linguistics has been interested in the study of human speech
so much. The study of prosody seems to be an area of knowledge, which has
undergone the most noticeable changes during the last ten or fifteen years. Such
attention to prosodic research is probably explained by the fact that contemporary
achievements in sphere of speech development technology have given an opportunity
to conduct investigations of acoustic parameters associated with prosodic phenomena,
in particular frequency of fundamental tone and duration. This also can be explained
by the fact that last time in linguistics and in particular, phonetics significant
theoretical advances that have allowed a better understanding of the functioning of
prosodic parameters while expressing different types of values in world languages
have been achieved.
Today the term “prosody” is widespread and it has simultaneous interpretation.
According to A. Antipova, there are two distinct and diametrically opposite points of
view to this matter. The first one sees difference between the concept of prosody and
intonation. The second perspective is largely connected with the understanding of
intonation as a multidimensional unity. In other words, the components of intonation
are treated as “a complex set of prosodic features”, and, in fact, identified with
prosody which is seen as a system of pronunciation of stressed and unstressed, long
and short syllables in speech. The second view is in the basis of this research work.
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![depends on the number of unstressed syllables: the more unstressed syllables, the
faster they should be pronounced [19; 46].
Meaningful groups in writing comply with rhythmic groups in the spoken
language, which are separated from each other by pauses. Under rhythmic group we
mean a set of stressed and unstressed syllables or rhythmic units between two pauses.
After a rhythmic group spoken with a rising tone there should be longer pause than
after a rhythmic group uttered with a falling tone [19; 64].
As in spoken English many function words are unstressed, time of their
pronouncing between two stressed syllables can be sufficiently small (it is dictated by
the rhythm of speech). Therefore, there is a certain phonetic method, which helps to
maintain such a pure English speech rhythm. This method is called conjoint reading.
The sense of this technique is in continuous (with no pauses) pronouncing unstressed
syllables, usually followed by a stressed syllable within the same rhythmic (meaning)
group. Thus, a pause (and breath) in spoken English is done only between rhythmic
groups, and within them all the syllables are pronounced “in one breath” [12; 24].
The following combinations of words that are included to the general meaning
groups should be spoken conjoint:
1) an article (possessive or a demonstrative pronoun) + a noun: a book, the
book, my book;
2) an article (or pronoun) + a noun with the definition: this pink dress;
3) a particle to along with infinitive: to go;
4) conjunctions and prepositions with surrounding them parts of speech: you
and I, black and white;
5) auxiliary and modal verbs;
6) a pronoun (a noun) + a verb: Nick would have written;
7) a predicate + an adverbial modifier or a complement: go to school;
8) introducing there + a form of the verb to be: there is, there are;
9) complex adverbs: so much;
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![CHAPTER I. THE PROSODIC AND RHYTHMIC MEANS OF
ENGLISH LANGUAGE SPEECH
1.1 Speech Rhythm, Intonation and Melody
Prosody is a set of phonetic supersegment means realized in speech at all levels
of speech segments (a syllable, a word, a word-combination, a syntagm, a phrase, a
superphrase, an utterance, a text) and performing the function of organization and
segmentation of the flow of speech [27; 31].
Often they distinguish the following elements of prosody: speech melody,
stress, time and timbral characteristics, rhythm and tone. In this sense, the term
“prosody” is often synonymous with the concept of intonation. Both terms are used to
describe the functional system of suprasegmental means of language, though there
were attempts to establish a distinction between prosody and intonation, linking
intonation with a phrase, and prosody with all segments of speech beginning with a
word and up to a text [27; 33].
The terms “prosody” and “rhythm” are also interrelated as rhythm is often
considered as one of the elements of prosody, in one row with speech intonation,
volume, tempo, melody, interregna in speech [19; 17]. Let’s bring to light each of this
prosodic means having analyzed some linguists’ works we have today.
Under the rhythm of speech we mean ordering of its sound, verbal and syntactic
structure defined by some meaning tension. In wider sense, rhythm is a regular
repetition of similar and comparable units of speech that perform structuring, text-
building and emotional functions. Rhythm is the least expressed in spontaneous
everyday speech, and the most in poetic texts [19;. 41].
In the formation of rhythm all possible means of language are involved: sound,
intonational, syntactic, as well as various intonational structures. Phonetics considers
rhythm of speech as a uniform alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables.
English-language speech is characterized by uniform go of stressed syllables.
Therefore, the speed of pronouncing unstressed syllables between two stressed ones
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![dimensions of human voice ranges are determined by structural features of the vocal
apparatus and are universal [20; 84].
It is believed that registers themselves do not carry any meaning. However,
register differences play a big role in the transmission of common emotional and
modal meanings. Thus, low register often reflects negative or limited emotional and
modal meanings (grief, sadness, frustration). High register is often typical for
statements that carry positive emotions (excitement, joy, etc.) or strong unrestrained
emotions (resentment, anger, etc.).
The transferring of questioning is largely connected with register parameters.
Interrogative utterances associated with middle and high registers. If the lexical and
grammatical structure does not transmit the meaning of questioning, then register of
the statement increases. The experiments in this field have shown that questioning is
mainly transmitted by register increase in any terminal tone.
Having considered the rising and falling tone, we’ve seen that the first tone is
the tone of uncertainty, incompleteness, and doubt. Therefore, rising intonation is
mainly used in interrogative sentences, report a great interest or surprise, it’s a polite
tone. The falling tone is the tone of straight assertion, completeness, and certainty. So
falling intonation is used in declarative sentences, special questions, exclamatory
sentences, etc.
Having examined the different types of intonation framing of utterances, we
can make a conclusion that mastering the skills of rhythmic and tonal framing of
different types of sentences plays very important role in learning English. Intonation
expresses emotions: surprise, anger, joy, frustration, etc. Since, in order to arrange the
speech correctly one need to know what intonational tone is typical for this or that
kind of utterances.
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![So in the poem “To a Poet a Thousand Years Hence” by American poet James
Elroy Flecker there is a verse. The adjective unknown has two main stresses – on the
prefix and the root vowel. However, in the poetic work this word’s principal stress is
completely reduced, as the word unknown rhymes with alone.
Speech Intonation. Intonation is a phonetic language tool that turns a sentence
to sounding statement. It is a variation of the unity of melody, tempo, phrasal stress,
tone and tempo of speech, which is used to transmit different meanings in the act of
communication. In a narrower sense, intonation is rhythmic-melodic system of an
utterance, presented by raising and lowering tone taking place in the stressed and
unstressed syllables [3; 5].
In a spoken statement intonation can perform the following functions:
1) make differences between types of communication statements (motivation,
question, exclamation, order, ask etc);
2) make differences between statements according to their meaning importance;
3) turn a statement into a coherent whole, at the same time breaking it to
rhythmic groups;
4) express specific certain emotions;
5) reveal the implication of a spoken statement;
6) characterize the speaker and the situation of communication [17; 48].
The first two functions bring intonation to the pattern of the language; the
others belong to the speech area. Intonation also plays a special role within a whole
text: it colors in different ways texts of different genres, divides a text into meaning
segments, at the same time holding the inter-phrase relation; it is an active factor of
emotional and aesthetic impact on the listener. The most important function of
intonation is associated with expression the aim of a statement: it characterizes it as a
message, a question, an objection etc. This function is implemented mainly by tonal
stresses of different configurations. To this function adjoins another one – expression
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The role of sentence structure in creating rhythm in prose