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The Semantics of the English Spatial Prepositions

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THE MINISTERY OF HIGHER AND SECONDARY SPECIAL EDUCATION OF UZBEKISTAN KARSHI STATE UNIVERSITY THE FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES THE CHAIR OF THE LINGUISTICS On the theme: The Semantics of the English Spatial Prepositions Karshi 201 5. 1

CONTENTS Introduction ...........................................................................................................3 CHAPTER I Syntactic and Semantic Features of English Prepositions 1.1 Historical survey of English prepositions……………………………………...7 1.2 Preposition as a means to provide the sentence additional and necessary details……………………………………………………………....................12 1.3 The grammatical functions of prepositions. ………………………………….14 CHAPTERII Reflections on the Functional Characterization of Spatial Prepositions 2.1 Spatial prepositions and their embodied meaning and cognition…….……..17 2.2 The nature of meaning that is embodied by means of spatial prepositions.....22 2.3 The Proto-scenes for spatial prepositions……………………………………..27 2.4 The semantic network for spatial prepos

On December 10, 2012 President of the Republic of Uzbekistan Islam Karimov signed a decree “On measures to further improvement of foreign language learning system”. 1 It is noted that in the framework of the Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan “On education” and the National Program for Training in the country, a comprehensive foreign languages’ teaching system, aimed at creating harmoniously developed, highly educated, modern-thinking young generation, further integration of the country to the world community, has been created. During the years of independence, over 51.7 thousand teachers of foreign languages graduated from universities, English, German and French multimedia tutorials and textbooks for 5-9 grades of secondary schools, electronic resources for learning English in primary sc

means of spatial prepositions. By examining the nature of human spatio-physical experience we explore conceptualization of spatial relations that is reflected in the English language. By explaining the semantics of spatial prepositions this paper has an important actuality for extending the role of preposition in the exploration of spatial and non- spatial concepts. This work provides a detailed analysis of the range of meanings associated with English spatial prepositions, and argues for the foundational role of experience in the development of meaning in general and word meaning in particular. Investigations of the qualification paper : This problem was investigated by many scientists: John D. Kelleher, Colm Sloan, Brain Mac Namee., Andrea Tyler and Vyvyan Evans and m any other cognitive

-to show the actuality of the meaning in context that is expressed by means of spatial prepositions; -to investigate the role of spatial prepositions in conceptualization of reality; We use the semantic and pragmatic observation methods in this research. Using a cognitive linguistics perspective, this paper provides the most comprehensive theoretical analysis of the semantics of English prepositions. Methodological basis of this paper is based on a decree of President of the Republic of Uzbekistan Islam Karimov which signed on December 10, 2012, “On measures to further improvement of foreign language learning system ” and The Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan “On education” and the National Program for Cadres Training. Theoretical basis of the research is based on the cognitive linguists’

classes. We can use this work for lectures dedicated to the themes prepositions, their grammatical functions, and their semantics. Construction of the qualification paper: It consists of introduction, two chapters, conclusion and bibliography. Introduction deals with description of the structure of the qualification work. The first chapter entitled The Syntactic and Semantic Features of English Prepositions. This chapter includes three paragraphs. The first paragraph reflects the historical survey of English prepositions. The second paragraph deals with the detailed information about prepositions. In the third paragraph we have given information about grammatical functions of prepositions. The second chapter is titled Reflections on the Functional Characterization of Spatial Prepositions.

1.3. Historical Survey of English Prepositions. When it comes to the diachronic study of English prepositions, it must be conceded that, until recently historical linguists have neglected their study. With an exception of a chapter in Mitchell´s two volume Old English Syntax and another chapter in Mustanoja´s Middle English Syntax , there is no comprehensive survey of prepositions in Old or Middle English. 2 As a syntactic work, Mitchell´s book has a strong formal bias, dealing predominantly with the preposition-case relation. Mustanoja, on the other hand, focuses predominantly on semantics. The majority of other handbooks and grammars of Old and Middle English restrict themselves to enumerating only a selected number of prepositions, adding their basic meanings or the case they governe

+ ward which occur since the Old English period in connection with some prepositions and in this way forms compound forms. The Old English attestations include æfterweard , inwardre , fromweardan , toweard , upweard , utweard . The prepositions with suffix + ward increased in number during the Middle English period and certain new forms like onward or untoward appeared in this period. In the course of the Early Modern English period, most of these forms were decreasing and the only remnants of this process that can be found in Present-day English are the prepositions toward and towards . Even though most prepositions formed according to the pattern preposition + ward disappeared, new prepositions were formed by compounding adverbs and the suffix + ward . Some of the prepositions also funct

Secondly, majority of new loan preposition are monomorphemic (e.g. fro , maugre , pur , sans , countre etc.). Some of the Middle English prepositions, however, retained their clearly identifiable compound morphological structure (e.g. in+to , to+ward , with+in , for+by , for+with , for+to , on+under , ou+taken , up+ward etc.). Complex prepositions, which consist of two- or three-word combinations acting as a single unit, appeared only since the Late Middle English period (e.g. by means of , by virtue of , by way of) . Most of them have the pattern - simple preposition + noun + simple preposition. It was during the Modern English period that we saw the greatest expansion of this category which remains productive until nowadays. The syntax of English preposition can be studied on two level

According to the corpus data 3 , the following prepositions occur among the fifty most frequently used English words: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Old English o n t o mid i n f or o f at be after o fer Middle English of t o i n f or b e o n by with a t Early Modern English of t o i n f or w ith b y at from o n Modern English of i n t o f or w ith o n b y a t from This definition is far from being linguistically correct, since already in the Old English period, there sometimesoccured postposed prepositions. Aelfric´s definition, as well as the term foresetnyss itself, imitates the Latin original byDonatusAelius. The Anglo-Saxon term for a preposition is derived from the Latin term praepositio , the morpheme for meaning “ before ” , the root settan meaning “ to place ” and the derivational morpheme

tradition were, for instance, likely to consider English prepositional phrases as pure equivalents of Latin case systems. Prepositions with a different function were usually deemed to be adverbs or, in some cases, a separate word class. As far as the influence of Latin grammars in the first 150 years of English grammar writing is concerned with Vorlat. The oldest study of English prepositions is represented right at the beginning of English grammar writing by William Bullokar´s 4 Brief Grammar for English , the first English grammar written in English. Bullokar defines prepositions as “ a part of speech properly used prepositively. First of all, it is interesting to observe that Bullokar takes notice of the fact that prepositions can occur postpostively, an important syntactic property c

Prepositions can be used to express wide range of semantic relations between their complement and the rest of the context. The relations expressed by means of spatial (denoting location or direction), temporal (denoting position in time),or relations expressing comparison, content, agent, instrument, means, cause, purpose, reference, etc. Most common prepositions are highly polysemous (they have various different meanings).In many cases a primary, spatial meaning becomes extended to non- spatial uses by metaphorical or other processes. Because of the variety of meanings, a single preposition often has many possible equivalents in another language, depending on the exact context in which it is used; this can cause significant difficulties in foreign language learning. Usage can also vary b

In English and many other languages prepositional phrases with static meaning are commonly used as predicative expressions. This may happen with some directional prepositions as well, but this is less common. Directional prepositional phrases combine mostly with verbs that indicate movement . Jay is going into her bedroom. Directional meanings can be further divided into telic and atelic. Telic prepositional phrases imply movement all the way to the endpoint: She ran to the fence while atelic ones do not: She ran towards the fence . Static meanings can be further divided into projective and non-projective meanings are those whose understanding requires knowledge of the perspective or point of view. For example the meaning of ‘behind the rock’ is likely to depend on the position of the spea

phrases are phrases that consist of a preposition plus another word, phrase, or clause functioning as a prepositional complement. Prepositions and prepositional phrase perform seven primary grammatical functions within sentence in the English language. The seven primary functions of prepositions and prepositional phrases are as follows: The first primary grammatical function that prepositions perform is prepositional phrase head. A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition plus another phrase or clause that functions as prepositional complement. For example, following italicized prepositions function as prepositional phrase heads: in the library, after reading the book for whatever will repair the leak. The second primary grammatical function that prepositional phrases perform is the

common verb form in the English language that consists of a verb followed by a preposition. The sixth primary grammatical function that prepositional phrases perform is the adjunct adverbial. An adjunct adverbial is a word, phrase or clause that modifies an entire clause by providing additional information about time, place, manner, condition, purpose, reason, result, and concession. For example, the following italicized prepositional phrases function as adjunct adverbials: The children waited in line. She failed the test because of her illness. The couple is walking their dog along the beach. The seventh primary grammatical function that prepositional phrase perform is the disjunct adverbial. A disjunct adverbial provides additional information to frame an entire clause. For example, the

English language learners can begin to master the intricacies of preposition usage are through practice and paying close attention to speech and the written word. Prepositions are relationship words. They give clues and guidance regarding how the reminder of the sentence fits together. There are several important rules when using prepositions in the context of a sentence. These rules relate to how prepositions can be used, which prepositions can be used, when, and where prepositions have to go in the sentence. Preposition is a word that explains the time, space or logical relationship between the other parts of the sentence. In other words, it links all the other words together, so the reader can understand how the pieces of the sentence fit. There are hundreds of prepositions in the Engl

There seem to be three basic problems for the semantics of prepositions; 1. Prepositions offer a considerable variability of context-independent interpretations i. e, the individual preposition can express a wide range of relations and this is true even if the analysis is restricted to the spatial uses of the individual preposition. The heterogeneity of possible interpretations for the individual preposition poses serious problems for all ‘abstractionist’ theories of word meaning that is, for instance, for theories that start from the assumption that word meanings should be defined in terms of necessary and sufficient conditions for their adequate use; or that they should comprise all and only information common to the whole range of context-dependent uses. 2. The second problem for a sem

The semantic theory for spatial prepositions should be capable of accounting for all three phenomena mentioned so far in an adequate and natural way. In particular, it should be able to explain the whole range of context-dependent meanings. If we accept that a preposition expresses a relation between two arguments, these arguments will naturally play the central part in these processes. It is at this point that the spatial properties of the argument objects, i.e., the spatial properties of the located object and the reference object, have to be taken into account and with them the principles of object conceptualization and categorization relevant for the use of the individual preposition and its interpretation . In the cognitive paradigm prepositions are generally considered ideal for the

part establishing the background, which functions as a location. In this partitioning the foreground figure receives prominence, because in a particular cognitive domain it is mobile or more movable in relation to its location which usually is more stationary. Langacker has introduced the terms of trajector and landmark for these old gestalt-psychological distinctions in order to mark their linguistic function. 5 The foreground is called the “trajector (TR) and the background is called the “landmark”(LM). The meaning of a preposition cannot be captured by a single semantic specification pertaining to either function or configuration. More typical are expressions like ( Jill is in the garage ) in which the trajector is a participant and the landmark is a local setting (or location) rather t

entities such as enclosures, bounded areas, and geographical regions of limited extent; ‘Jill is in her room’ . These are naturally viewed as locations, being characterized more by spatial expanse than by material substance. We can observe in these examples a general trend for a wider range of prepositions to occur with landmarks more readily viewed as participants. The reason evidently, is that the landmark’s function is to specify a location and landmarks which are not inherently locational fail to do so with any precision. The landmark entity is thus involved not as a location in and of itself, but rather as appoint of reference for defining one. It is defined by the prepositions. As the distinctive aspect of its meaning, each spatial preposition specifies a region in space, characteriz

in space and time. It is by these spatial properties that the conceived entities constrain the possible relations between them and hence the possible spatial predications expressed by prepositions. In particular, we are interested in how spatial concepts are systematically extended to provide a wide array of non-spatial meanings. We do so through a study of English spatial particles, an important subset of which is prepositions. For instance, in a spatial scene described by: The cup is on the table , the cup is in contact with the upper side of the table. A distinct spatio-configuration is described by the following: The coffee is in the cup . This scene involves the coffee being located inside the cup. It turns out that particular spatial re lations have non- trivial consequences that are

stored in a mental dictionary or lexicon. Traditional approaches to the mental lexicon have tended either to ignore the issue of whether distinct meanings associated with a single form are related or to assume that the relationships are arbitrary, which is to say, the forms are unrelated. However, the linguist Bernd Heine has observed that finding a satisfactory solution to the problem of how to represent the multiple meanings associated with a single linguistic form is both a central and a controversial issue for linguistic theory. The position taken on this question affects not only how we model the semantics of individual lexical items and the architecture of the mental lexicon, but also the rest of one’s model of language. In this work we take up the challenge of how best to represent

is exactly what typical native speakers of English are likely to find unremarkable, namely the numerous, very different interpretations assigned to the single word, over . In this short text, over has four distinct interpretations – over A can be paraphrased by ‘again’, over B by ‘above’, over C by ‘finished’ and over D by ‘in some other place’. For us, the fundamental question that texts such as the one above raise is whether the various meanings regularly associated with a single word are simply accidental , or systematically related. The question of how best to model the distinct meanings associated with a single lexical form has been approached from three perspectives. These are homonymy, monosemy and polysemy. Accord ingly, it would be claimed that there are several distinct form-mean

distinct meanings associated with a lexeme are derived. This position is termed monosemy, as it holds that the multiple meanings associated with a particular form are merely contextually derived variants of a single monosemous meaning. Monosemy, like homonymy, has a number of problems associated with it. Perhaps the most serious is that while it may well be that the distinct meanings as sociated with a particular form are related to a primary, abstract meaning, some meanings are demonstrably context independent. That is, although important, pragmatic knowledge alone is insufficient in predicting all of the distinct mean ings associated with a particular form. For instance, in our examples for over it is difficult to see what kind of contextual knowledge would allow us to derive the spatial

Figure2.1. Possible trajectories for The cat jumped over the wall. Consider a further complication diagram (d) in figure 2.1 crucially repre sents the cat’s motion ending at a point on the opposite side of the wall relative to the starting position of the jump. Yet, no element in the sentence explicitly provides us with this information. 8 In the following examples we can see polysemantic approach. Figure 2.2 Trajectory paths potentially coded by over. Figure2.2 shows that over can be associated with several potential spatial configurations holding between the object in focus and the locating, backgrounded object. Jane marched up the stairs. >Jane marched down the stair. In sentences such as these, information provided by the spatial preposition clearly affects the interpretation of the tr

across ’ , when there is no contact between the TR and LM, additional semantic features (beyond those provided by the LM) which code where the movement started and ended seem to be required. If such specification is necessary for one trajectory in which there is no contact, we might conclude that it should be included in the representation of all trajectories in which there is no contact. However, in the sentence: The plane flew over the city the normal interpretation does not include information concerning where the motion associated with flying started and ended. This analysis allows us to avoid the problems encountered with a more fully specified lexical representation while revealing the systematic semantic relations among the many meanings of individual English spatial preposition. We

In order to distinguish the primary sense in a semantic network from the other senses that are ultimately derived from it, we use the term proto-scene . A proto- scene is an idealized mental representation across the recurring spa tial scenes associated with a particular spatial preposition; hence it is an abstraction across many similar spatial scenes. It combines idealized elements of real-world experience (objects in the guise of TRs and LMs) and a conceptual relation (a conceptualization of a particular configuration between the objects). Proto-scenes are instantiated in memory due to their frequency and util ity in human interaction with the world. In our label proto-scene, the term proto captures the idealized aspect of the conceptual/mental relation, while the use of the term scene

is that the spatial configuration holding between the TR–LM is correctly captured by the description that over lexicalizes the proto- scene depicted in figure 2.3, namely that the TR is higher than but within a region of potential contact with the LM. The second claim warranting further scrutiny concerns the functional element: that the TR and LM are within each other’s sphere of influence. Dealing with the first claim, the linguistic evidence suggests that over is at best marginally acceptable if the TR is not within a specifiable proximal range of the LM. The proto-scene for above Above traces its origins to Anglo-Saxon be + ufan , which is related to the same Sanskrit root, ‘upari’, as over . In Anglo-Saxon, the antecedent of over was ufa , the comparative form of above . In Gothic, be

conceptualized as not within potential reach of the LM. While the notion of distance between the TR and LM accounts for the majority of uses of above , that certain uses of prepositions are not predictable and only partially motivated, that the spatial scene prompted for by above involves a vaguer relation ship between the TR and the LM, one in which the location of the TR is less clearly specified or known, than the scene prompted for by over . Proto-scenes for under and below The divisions of the vertical axis higher than the LM represented by over and above are mirrored by under and below when the TR is conceptualized as being lower than the LM. Parallel to over , the proto-scene for under denotes a conceptual spatial-functional relation between a TR and a LM, in which the TR is lower t

Figure 2.6 Proto-scene for below 30

In figures 2.5 and 2.6, the LM is designated by the bold line, the TR by the shaded sphere and the region experienced and conceptualized as within reach of the LM by the dashed line. Hence, the region of potential contact is between the LM and the dashed line. In figure 2.6, the TR is outside thisregion and hence the TR and LM are not in potential contact with respect to one another. Proto-scene for up The proto-scene for up denotes a relation in which the TR is directed towards the top of an oriented LM. Thus, the LM is conceptually partitioned and construed as having a top and bottom; what counts as top is determined by the LM. The TR is also conceptualized as being oriented; in this case, the asymmetry arises as a result of the direction in which the TR is directed. What constitutes up

Figure 2.8 Proto-scene for down In figure 2.8 the ‘head’ is unshaded while the ‘legs’ are in bold. This high - lighting reflects the view that for down , the bottom half of the human form is profiled. In contrast with up , we suggest that the functional element associated with down is that of negative value. It is negative in the sense that the TR becomes invisible, no longer accessible, in a lower position, and no longer in a position of command, or influence, and no longer in a normative position, but a position of potential vulnerability. Proto-scene for to and for In this section we examine the proto-scenes and several senses associated with to and for two spatial prepositions which involve oriented TRs. These prepositions are particularly interesting for several reasons. Teasing out

Figure 2.10 Proto-scene for for The linguistic manner exhibited by to and for discussed above, suggests that to and for both designate TRs oriented with respect to LMs, but the status of the TR and LM associated with the respective spatial prepositions is distinct. A consequence of these differences in status of the TRs and LMs is different in the functional elements associated with each preposition. Hence, the functional element associated with to is the LM as goal. Figure 2.9 represents the proto- scenes for to . The shaded sphere represents the TR. The arrow represents the orientation. The vertical line represents the LM. The functional element associated with the proto-scene is that the LM constitutes the primary goal. Figure 2.10 represents the proto-scene associated with for . The s

The proto-scene for in front of is given in figure 2.11. The TR is denoted by the small shaded sphere. The LM is designated by the elongated sphere, with orientation denoted by the direction of the arrow emerging from the LM. Thus far in our discussion of the proto-scene for in front of , we have considered only animate LMs, which have inherent front/back orientation. However, the proto- scene for in front of can also be used with inanimate LMs, which are what we will term functionally oriented . Proto-scene for before The spatial preposition before relates historically to Old English beforen/ biforan , Old Saxon biforan , Old High German bifora glossed as ‘be front’ or ‘ahead’ as well as to be + fore. Fore was a separate preposition in Old English and meant ‘located at the front of’. Fore

Proto-scene for behind The interactive consequence of a TR located at the back of a front/back oriented LM is that the LM does not have perceptual access to the TR . 35

The interactive consequence of a TR located at the back of a front/back oriented LM is that the LM does not have perceptual access to the TR. The etymology of this preposition is be + hind. Hind is clearly associated with an anthropomorphic/zoomorphic model, as in ‘hind end’ or ‘hind quarters’ of a person or animal. Thus, behind originally meant roughly ‘located at the back’. The proto- scene we propose for behind locates the TR at the back of the LM, that is, the TR is understood to be located such that the front of the LM is directed away from the TR. Figure 2.13 Proto-scene for behind The proto-scene for behind is diagrammed in figure 2.13, as with the proto-scene posited for in front of and before, the small shaded sphere represents the TR. The larger elongated sphere represents the LM

apparent in Old English and meant ‘off’ or ‘away’. Hence, the comparative ‘af + ter’ meant ‘farther off’ or ‘farther away’ Figure 2.14 Proto-scene for after The proto-scene for after is presented in figure 2.14. The larger, oriented element represents the LM; the smaller element represents the TR. Proto-scene for in The proto-scene for in constitutes a spatial relation in which a TR is located within a LM which has three salient structural elements – an interior, a boundary and an exterior. In addition to the spatial relation designated, the proto-scene for in is associated with the functional element of containment. Figure 2.15 Proto-scene for in The proto-scene for in is given in figure 2.15. The LM is designated by the bold lines while the TR is designated by the shaded sphere. Proto-sc

Figure 2.16 Proto-scene for into 38

Proto-scene for out Positing that out involves the exterior element of a bounded LM and a func - tional element of non-containment predicts that many of the senses associated with out will involve opposing inferences from those arising with in and the functional element of containment. The spatial relation designated by out is one in which the TR is not contained by the bounded LM. However, in our everyday interaction with ob jects and our environment, it is evident that many TRs that are not contained by LMs at one time were. Figure 2.17 Proto-scene for out We diagram the proto-scene for out in figure 2.17. The shaded sphere repre - sents the TR while the dashed square represents the covert bounded LM. The LM is covert in the sense that it is not profiled by out . A consequence of this is

Figure 2.18 Proto-scene for of The spatial relation denoted by of in examples such as these therefore involves a part-whole designation, with the TR being a specified part of the LM. The designation of the spatial elements of the synchronic primary sense for of is diagrammed as our proto-scene in figure 2.18. Proto-scene for through It designates a spatial relation in which the TR is held to occupy a contiguous series of spatial points with respect to a LM, which has an interior structural element, such that these points are located on the exterior side of the LM co incident with the entrance point, within the LM and on the exterior side of the LM opposite to the entrance point, that is, the exit point. Figure 2.19 Proto-scene for through Thus, the relation described by through describes

2.4. The semantic network for spatial prepositions In previous studies of semantic networks it has been assumed that there is a single primary sense associated with a spa tial preposition, and that the other senses are derived from this primary sense in a principled way. In particular, Lakoff argued that lexical categories and polysemy networks could be thought of in terms of being structured with respect to prototypical meanings. 11 On this view, the distinct meanings or senses associated with a particular word, such as over , are related in a principled way to a prototype. Lakoff modeled his semantic network for over in terms of a radiating lattice structure, in which the prototypical sense was positioned as central, while other senses were depicted as being more peripheral. The histori

however, there are some senses which do not participate. We suggest that participation in composite forms cannot directly determine which sense is primary, but failure to participate can be taken as suggestive that particular sense is probably not primary in the network. Within the entire group of spatial prepositions, certain clusters of prepositions ap pear to form compositional sets that divide up various spatial dimensions. For instance, the prepositions above, over, under and below appear to form a compositional set which divides up the vertical dimension into four related subspaces. Other contrast sets include up and down, before and after , and in front of and behind , and in and out . To a large extent, the label assigned to denote a particular TR–LM configuration is deter mined in

Figure 2.20 The semantic network for over The five distinct senses in the A-B-C Trajectory Cluster (On-the-other-side-of, Above-and-beyond (Excess I), Completion, Transfer and Temporal) all derive from reanalysis of the complex conceptualization. This complex conceptualization, although profiling a sequentially evolving process, during reanalysis is subject to conceptualization in summary format. 43

The On-the-other-side-of Sense has come to be associated with certain uses of over which are not derivable from context. Consider the following sentence: Arlington is over the Potomac River from Georgetown. Notice in this sentence that the verb is , fails to indicate any sense of motion. In our model for over , it is the verb that typically codes for motion and hence prompts for a trajectory. Thus, the lack of motion coded by is , in turn, results in failure to prompt for a trajectory. If there is no trajectory, there is no beginning or end point. Hence, there is no principled way of deriving an On-the-other- side-of Sense from this sentential context. Nevertheless, native speakers will normally interpret this utterance such that Arlington is understood to be located on the other side of t

Your article is over the page limit. Note that in this sentence, over cannot felicitously be interpreted as physically ‘higher than’. Rather the interpretation seems to be that there is an established or targeted number of pages for the article and that the actual number of pages went beyond (i.e., exceeded) that target. The Completion Sense (2.C) We suggest that the Completion Sense associated with over has arisen as a result of the implicature of completion being reanalysed as distinct from the complex conceptualization. Once reanalysis has taken place, the final location resulting from motion correlates with the completion of motion, and the distinct sense comes to be associated with the form over in the semantic network via pragmatic strengthening. Contextually independent usages of th

The festival will take place over the weekend. Their friendship has remained strong over the years. In each of these examples the TR is conceptualized as being manifested through time, and hence co-occurring with the temporal LM, the weekend and the years , respectively. For this reason we term this the Temporal Sense.In order to understand how this sense is likely to have derived, consider the following: The boy walked over the hill. The Covering Sense (3) All the senses and interpretations we have examined so far have assumed that the TR is smaller than the LM. However, there are instances in the real world in which the object that is in focus is larger or perceived to be larger than the locating object. Such a situation is described in the following sentences: The tablecloth is over the

b) The little boy cried about his broken toy. This sense is closely related to the Examining Sense from which it derives. In the Examining Sense, the vantage point is that of the TR, while the LM is physically below and proximal to the TR. We further posited that the TR must be construed as directing attention toward the LM. Once this sense has been instantiated in memory, non-physical TRs and LMs can be denoted by this sense, as evidenced by the following: She thought over the problem. The vertical elevation or Up Cluster (5) Four distinct senses fall under this cluster. Each of these arises from construing a TR that is located physically higher than the LM as being vertically elevated or up relative to the LM. Being up entails a particular construal of the scene in which upward orientati

The heavy rains caused the river to flow over its banks. When the amount of liquid or cereal which has been placed in the container is such that its level is higher than but within reach of the top of the LM, then the amount constitutes more than the container can hold. Lou kept pouring the cereal into the bowl until it spilled over and onto the counter. Control Sense (5.B) The third experiential correlate associated with vertical elevation is the phenomenon of control or power. This meaning com ponent associated with over is illustrated by the following sentence: She has a strange power over me. Clearly this sentence does not mean that the TR, she , is higher than but within reach of me , the LM. Rather, the conventional interpretation derived from such an example is that the TR exerts in

The Repetition Sense (6.A) The Repetition Sense adds an iterative meaning component to the use of over . Again, this meaning component could not be predicted from the proto-scene alone. Consider the following example in which over can be paraphrased by again : After the false start, they started the race over . Further examples of the Repetition Sense are given below: He played the same piano piece over. This keeps happening over and over. After exercising on all the weight machines, Edna began the circuit all over . The semantic network for above The semantic network for above contains only four distinct senses, many fewer than the number contained in the network for over . We suggest, in a spatial relation over , relates to potential contact and hence proximity, giving rise to a greater

Figure 2.21The semantic network for above The Up Cluster (2) In this cluster, inferences of this kind, relating to the TR being up relative to the LM, give rise to two distinct senses, the More Sense and the Superior Sense. The More Sense (2.A) Evidence for establishment of a distinct sense comes from uses of above in which there is no objective sense of physicality or of vertical elevation. Consider the following: The price of that stock is now above $20. In this sentence, both the TR, the price of that stock , and the LM, $20 , represent non-physical entities or concepts. Both over and above has developed More Sense. However, the uses of each of these prepositions in their More Sense are constrained by their representa tive proto-scenes. For instance, we commonly find expressions such a

this use of above , the concept of great distance seems to be highlighted, which is consistent with the proto-scene we have posited for above . Consider the following example: He’s above me in the company. In the relation designated by this example, the sentence does not mean that the TR, he , is physically higher than the LM, me , but rather that the TR, he , is superior to the LM, me , in some way, for instance in terms of authority, seniority, salary. There are two additional senses associated with above , which appear to di rectly derive from the proto-scene. These are what we term the Next-one-up Sense, and the Topographical-distance Sense. The Next-one-up Sense (3 ) In this sense, above relates to the next one up in a vertical sequence. In addition to the Higher-than reading associat

Accordingly, the patterns found with over are to some extent repeated with under . The semantic networks for under is given in figure 2.22. Figure 2.22 Semantic networks for under The Down Cluster (2 ) This cluster represents the mirror of the Up Cluster for over . Owing to experi ential correlation, a TR that is lower than the LM implicates less. These implicatures have been conventionalized and instantiated in the semantic network for under. The Less Sense (2.A) Evidence that less is a distinct sense in the semantic network comes from sentences in which the TR and LM cannot be construed as being physically lower than the TR: The government decided to exempt incomes under $4.000. In this sentence, we do not conventionally understand that there is a spatial relation that holds between inc

Rather, under has a conventional meaning of less than. Unless there were a distinct sense instantiated in memory, there would be no way of predict ing this non-spatial reading. 53

The Control Sense (2.B) The second sense deriving from the Down Cluster is the Control Sense. An important insight offered by the principled polysemy approach is that both over and under , which are traditionally rep resented as opposites, should both develop a similar meaning component, a Control Sense. Because under prompts for a relation which includes both being physically lower than and within potential contact with the LM as meaning components, it is ideally suited to developing a Control Sense. Consider the following: The boy had trapped the fly under his hand . In the spatial scene designated by this sentence, the proto-scene is denoted. However, by virtue of the TR, the fly , being located under the LM, his hand , the fly is thereby trapped, and the boy has the fly in his control.

The Non-existence Sense (4) A salient aspect of human experience is death. In many cultures, and traditionally in western cultures, the dead are buried underground. This gives rise to a recurring correlation between being under and no longer being alive. For instance, dead people are often buried underground; drowning, resulting in death, correlates with disappearing under the water’s surface, etc. We suggest that this correlation in experience has given rise, in certain contexts, to an implicature of non-existence having become associated with under . By way of example, consider the following: Typically, to prevent animals from disturbing the grave, the dead person is buried under six feet of dirt. In this sentence there is a correlation between being located under and death (hence: non-

I don’t interact with Alan much, as he is below me in the law firm. The interpretation of this sentence is not that the TR is located physically lower than the LM, but that the TR, Alan , is in an inferior position in the law firm relative to the speaker. The Next-one-down Sense (3) The semantic network of below has a mirror-image of the Next-one-up Sense, associated with above , namely the Next-one-down Sense. Here, below serves to identify precisely the next element in a vertical sequence below the TR, as evidenced by the following: Not that one, the box below it! His office is on the floor below mine. As we observed in our discussion of the Next-one-up Sense for above , this sense allows the TR and LM to be in potential contact, by virtue of participating in a vertical sequence. We turn

Moreover, more than one experiential correlation may contribute to a particular concept. This point is made clear when we study the complex nature of the concept of completion, illustrated in our discussion of the Completion Sense associated with up . The Quantity Cluster for ‘up’ The cluster of senses that we are terming the Quantity Cluster derives from the familiar experiential correlation between quantity and vertical elevation. In the following sections, we discuss three distinct senses that derive from this correlation. This discussion illustrates how a particular orientation towards the vertical axis can become meaningful to us as human beings because of the consequences it entails. Spatial axes are far more than merely locational/spatial denotations; they necessarily give rise to

betterment occurs, up has developed a conventionalized Improvement Sense. This is clear from the following example in which there is no contextual means of predicting that up is associated with improvement: I read up on British history after watching the film about Elizabeth I . The Completion Sense A consequence of increasing quantity is that, in many circumstances, a limit is reached at which point there can be no further increase. This entails that the increase is complete. A common example of this relates to our everyday interaction with containers, ranging from cups of coffee, to baths, to glasses of beer. For instance, if liquid is poured into a glass, as the quantity of liquid contained increases, a point is reached where no more liquid can be contained, and hence the pouring activi

quantity, this implicature has come to be conventionally associated with the semantic network for down : The amount of water in the Potomac is down. In this example the use of down to prompt for a decreased quantity is derivable from context. This follows, since being physically down correlates with smaller quantity. The Worse/Inferior Sense A consequence of having less of something is that often one is in a worse or inferior position. The meaning component of being worse off has come to be conventionally associated with down , as evidenced by the following: The old man is down on his luck. The sentence in for instance, does not literally mean that the old man is somehow in a physically lower position than at other times in his life. The Completion Sense Like up , down has Completion Sense

illustrated by the following: The poster portrayed a young woman with her finger to her lips. The Contact Sense meets the criteria of being a distinct sense, as without knowing that to explicitly codes contact, context alone would not account for the interpretation that an expression such as finger to lips means ‘finger touch ing lips’, rather than, for instance, a finger pointing in the direction of one’s lips. The Attachment Sense A sense closely related to the Contact Sense is the Attachment Sense. In this sense, to denotes a relation, in which the TR is attached or joined to the LM such that it forms a part of or is contiguous with the LM. Consider the following: He added a fence to the garden. The Comparison Sense In this sense to denote a relation in which the TR is compared with the

The Purpose Sense In this sense, the LM, which is closely related to the TR’s purpose or the entity sought, is in focus. As we have seen previously, a change in construal often results in a new sense. In this sense for denotes a relation in which an action by the TR is associated with a particular purpose. Consider this example: He arrived at 7.30 for dinner. In this example the TR performs a particular activity in order to achieve some purpose. The Intended Recipient Sense In this sense for introduces the intended recipient of a particular action. Hence, the recipient motivates the particular action designated. Consider some examples: Susan bought the gown for Carol. The Benefactive Sense In this sense, for denotes a relation between an action and a beneficiary: She raised money for chari

strengthening represent powerful phenomena in the development of additional, non-spatial senses be coming associated with a particular form. In the opening of Parliament, the Prime Minister has put reform of the National Health Service in front of outlawing cigarette advertising. In this example in front of denotes a non-spatial relation between a TR and a LM. Moreover, the conventional reading is that the TR is in some sense more important or more privileged than the LM. The semantics of before This can occur in our real-world experience when an ‘in front of relation involves a human TR that is directed away from the oriented LM. Before seems to be just such a preposition. We find evidence for two competing senses, the Location Sense (involving a TR and an oriented LM) and the In Advance

In this sense before denotes a non-spatial relation between two entities in which the notion of being more privileged or more important in some way is signaled. Consider some examples: a. My father tried never to place one of his children before another. b. This airline makes a virtue out of placing safety before all else. In these examples the TR is afforded a higher priority than the LM. This relation is designated by before . Clearly, this sense is distinct from the proto-scene associated with before as it involves additional, non-spatial relation. The semantics of behind The etymology of this preposition is be + hind. Hind is clearly associated with an anthropomorphic/zoomorphic model, as in ‘hind end’ or ‘hind quarters’ of a person or animal. Thus, behind originally meant roughly ‘lo

The semantics of after After shares semantic space with behind , but the etymological origins of the two prepositions are very different and continue to constrain their use. After de rives from a comparative form of af , which was apparent in Old English and meant ‘off’ or ‘away’. Hence, the comparative ‘af + ter’ meant ‘farther off’ or ‘farther away’. Unlike its contrast partner before , which has a Location Sense as part of its polysemy network, after appears not to have a Location Sense along the lines of ‘located at the back of the LM’, as evidenced by the following: He knelt after the King (intended reading: behind the King. Nevertheless, after does have a spatial sense associated with it, which paral lels some of the in tandem uses of the proto-scene for after. The Sequential Sense O

Turn right at George Street and go three blocks. 13 Consistent with the view of embodied experience articulated throughout this work, the way in which humans experience and interact with bounded LMs has functional consequences. These consequences are reflected in the meanings typically associated with the spatial prepositions in , into , out , out of and through. The semantics for in We will begin with the semantics of in . As this spatial preposition is asso - ciated with a particularly extensive and complex network of senses, we will restrict our discussion to a limited set of senses that exemplify the way in which human interaction with bounded LMs motivates a range of contrasting senses. The Location Cluster In the Location Cluster of senses, the notion that a bounded LM serves to pick

The State Sense Through recurring instances of a particular emotional state being experienced in a specific locale, the correlation between location and emotional and or physical state becomes established. This correlation gives rise to conceptual associations such that we conceptualize and hence lexicalize states in terms of location. The spatial preposition in can be employed with certain states which are concep tualized as constraining the TR or posing difficulty in leaving, for example She looked peaceful in death , They are always getting in trouble ; or with situations which can be conceptualized and hence lexicalized as states, We’re in a state of war/emergency/holy matrimony/martial law/anarchy , etc. The reason for this is that there is a tight correlation between being located in

The Perceptual Accessibility Sense A consequence of the experiencer and vantage point being located within a bounded LM is that TR(s) and interior environment contained by the LM are available to the experiencer (and hence vantage point) by virtue of his or her sense-perceptory apparatus. Hence, due to the frequently co- occurring experiences of the construer being located within the bounded LM and the resulting perceptual accessibility of the interior bounded space and the TR to the construer, in has developed a Perceptual Accessibility Sense. Consider an example: I have it in view. I have him in sight . In the sentences above in denotes a relation between TR and sense-perceptory availability with respect to a particular experiencer (the vantage point). Notice that the sensory perception

The Disappearance Sense The nature of many physical entities with an interior is that they are made of opaque substances and thus the boundary of the LM often obstructs the observer’s view of the interior and hence the contents. We suggest that due to the tight correlation between LMs with interiors and occlusion, in has come to be reanalyzed as having a distinct Disappearance Sense, as evidenced by the examples given below: The wine quickly soaked in . Millie rubbed in the lotion . The reason for thinking that examples such as these evidence a distinct Dis - appearance Sense relates to our two criteria for determining whether a sense is distinct or not. The Shape As Boundary Sense In the Shape As Boundary Sense, the TR constitutes part of a delimited configuration forming a shape. Conside

meaning associated with in . That is, in does not relate to containment but rather to a constraint on movement. The Reflexive Sense In her study of verb-preposition constructions Lindner noticed that some spatial prepositions have a reflexive meaning element associated with them. In is such a spatial preposition. Consider some illustrative examples of the Reflexive Sense associated with in : The walls of the sandcastle fell in . The house caved in . The semantics of out We suggest that the primary meaning associated with out designates a spatial relation in which the TR is exterior to a bounded LM. The functional element we have posited for in is containment, which is a multifaceted but fairly unified concept, for which English has devel oped a lexical label. However, the relation designat

more of the TR available has given rise to a No More Sense becoming associated with out , as evidenced by the following: A: Have we got any milk left? B: No, we’re (all) out! The conventional reading associated with out is that there is no more of the TR, here the milk . The Completion Sense In this sense there is a meaning of completion associated with out , as evidenced by the following: This jacket needs to dry out before you wear it again. In this sentence out adds a meaning of completion. Hence, in each of these examples out can be paraphrased by the lexeme completely . In this sense, out designates the end point of a process, drying and thawing respectively. The Vantage Point is Interior Cluster With the proto-scene for out and the extended senses discussed so far, we have assumed th

this sense of lack of visibility has become conventionally associated with out is illustrated in the following: He switched the light out . A light, when no longer visible, can be described as being out even when no bounded LM is involved in the interpretation. After all, the light is not physically located out , with respect to a particular bounded LM. The Vantage Point is Exterior Cluster This way of viewing a spatial scene has given rise to a number of distinct senses associated with out . We will consider two: the Visibility Sense and the Knowing Sense. The Visibility Sense In spatial scenes in which the vantage point is exterior to the bounded LM, it follows that if the TR is also exterior then the TR is often visible . This common scene gives rise to out having devel oped a Visibilit

In this example, the LM is identical to the TR. The boundary of the LM is defined by the outer limits of the original position occupied by the LM. The semantics for of Of has a number of distinct senses associated with it. Interestingly of has two distinct ‘source’ senses associated with it. Consider therefore the following sentence: This wine is a product of Italy. The second ‘source’ sense relating to of concerns the manufacturing process itself, in which a particular entity is ‘transformed’ into another. Consider the following sentence: This carving is made of oak. In this example the LM, oak , does not designate a physical location, but rather a material which is used to fashion a product, namely a carving. This sense associated with of we term the Material Source Sense. The semantics

The On-the-other-side-of Sense The result of the motion is arriving at a particular location. When a person completes the action of walking through a field, it is impossible not to be on the other side of the field from where he or she started: Once she passed through the doorway at the end of the dark hall way she found herself in a sunny enclosed porch . The normal interpretation of this sentence is that the TR moves along the hall way, the LM, passes beyond the hallway, which is bounded by the doorway, and ends up on the other side of the doorway in an entirely different room. The Completion Sense We will now turn to an examination of the Comple tion Sense. When through occurs in context with a verb of motion, it crucially influences the inferred trajectory by contributing the informati

particular process, the LM, which motivates the TR. Consider the following example: The accused murderer’s wife was able to remain loyal through her conviction of his innocence. In this sentence a particular activity, ‘remaining loyal’, is caused, that is, moti vated, by an on-going conviction, manifesting itself in tangible demonstrations, such as, for instance, visiting him in jail. 74

Conclusion Having studied the semantics of English prepositions and analyzing their syntactic and semantic features we came to the following conclusions: 1. Prepositions are essential to sentences because they provide additional and necessary details. Prepositions are words that introduce the following information to the reader: where something takes place, when or why something takes place general descriptive information. According to their grammatical functions prepositions don’t stand alone. They work in groups of words that we call prepositional phrases. Prepositions, in the form of prepositional phrases, provide specific information in sentence for the reader. 2. As for the nature of meaning that is embodied by means of spatial prepositions they have numerous meanings associated with

relation grounded in spatial interaction and experiences involving entities that are related in a particular spatio-configurational way. There are number of reasons for choosing spatial prepositions. Perhaps most importantly the variety and complexity of the numerous different meanings associated with even a single spatial preposition represents a significant descriptive challenge. But also important is the relatively transparent experiental basis of spatial prepositions. The meanings of this set of words are clearly grounded at some level in our spatio-physical interaction with the world. Investigating the meanings associated with spatial prepositions will offer fundamental insights, into the relation between language, mental representation and human experience. The various meanings assoc

knowledge of the world and their prior experiences with the world, including their prior experience with language. Each time a preposition is interpreted in context, its precise interpretation is affected by the context in which the preposition occurs. This context includes the inevitable inferences involved in establishing an overall interpretation for the utterance. Meaning, of a sentence or a preposition, thus arises from how the linguistic unit is used by speakers in the course of communica tion. When spatial prepositions are used in the description of recurring situations, the inferences which arise in connection with their contextualized use are also recurrent; these regularly occurring inferences often become associated with the spatial preposition through a process which, we label

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