Verbal’s. Their grammatical categories and syntactic functions

THE MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND
INNOVATIONS OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN
SAMARKAND STATE INSTITUTE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES FACULTY
OF ENGLISH PHILOLOGY AND TRANSLATION 
SUBJECT : 
  COURSE WORK
THEME: Verbal’ s. Their grammatical categories and syntactic functions
SAMARKAND 2024
1 CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………...…3
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION TO VERBALS  ……………………………...8
1.1.   Definition of verbals…………………………………………………………...8
1.2.   Role of verbals in grammar…………….……………...……………………..13
CONCLUSION ON CHAPTER I …………………………………….…...……20
CHAPTER II. OVERVIEW OF THE THREE TYPES OF VERBALS: 
GERUNDS, PARTICIPLES, INFINITIVES ……………………….……….…21
2.1. Detailed explanation of gerunds: form and function........................................21
2.2.   Uderstanding present and past participles: formation and usage…………….23
2.3. In-depth study of infinitives: types and functions………….………………...25
CONCLUSION ON CHAPTER II ……………………………………….….…31
CONCLUSION ……………………………………………………………….….32
THE LIST OF USED LITERATURE ………………….….………………..….33
2 INTRODUCTION
Verbals   are   versatile   components   of   language   that   play   crucial   roles   in
conveying meaning, adding complexity, and enhancing the structure of sentences.
Understanding their grammatical categories and syntactic functions is essential for
proficient   communication   and   effective   writing.   “On   May   6,   President   Shavkat
Mirziyoyev   chaired   a   meeting   on   measures   to   improve   the   system   of   teaching
foreign   languages.Several   areas   of   knowledge   are   determined   every   year   in
Uzbekistan, the development of which is given priority attention. This year physics
and   foreign   languages   have   become   such   areas   [1,29].   This   introduction   aims   to
explore the diverse world of verbals, including gerunds, participles, and infinitives,
delving   into   their   forms,   functions,   and   relationships   within   sentences.   By
examining their various roles and nuances, we can unlock the richness of language
and   harness   the   power   of   verbals   to   express   ideas   with   clarity   and   precision.
Gerunds, participles, and infinitives are three main types of verbals, each with its
distinct characteristics and functions. Gerunds, derived from verbs but functioning
as nouns, serve as subjects, objects, or complements within sentences. Participles,
on the other hand, maintain their verbal qualities while also adopting adjectival or
adverbial   functions,   modifying   nouns   or   verbs   within   the   sentence   structure.
Infinitives, often preceded by the particle "to," retain their verbal identity but can
function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs, depending on their role in the sentence.
Understanding the grammatical categories and syntactic functions of these verbals
enables writers to construct sentences with precision, clarity, and sophistication. In
the subsequent  sections,  we will  delve deeper into each type of verbal, exploring
their forms, usages, and syntactic roles in greater detail. Gerunds, as verbal nouns,
have   the   unique   ability   to   function   as   subjects,   objects,   or   complements   within
sentences.   For   example,   in   the   sentence   "Swimming   is   my   favorite   hobby,"
"swimming" acts as the subject of the sentence, demonstrating the gerund's ability
to  take   on  a   substantive   role   typically  associated   with   nouns.   Participles,   in   their
dual nature as verbals and modifiers, enhance the descriptive quality of sentences
3 by   modifying   nouns   or   verbs.   In   the   phrase   "The   running   water,"   "running"
functions as a present participle modifying the noun "water," providing additional
information   about   its   characteristic   state.   Infinitives,   often   introduced   by   the
particle   "to,"   exhibit   versatility   by   functioning   as   nouns,   adjectives,   or   adverbs
within sentences. In the sentence "She likes to dance," the infinitive "to dance" acts
as   the   direct   object   of   the   verb   "likes,"   showcasing   its   nominal   function.   By
examining   the   distinct   characteristics   and   syntactic   functions   of   gerunds,
participles,   and   infinitives,   writers   can   wield   these   verbals   effectively   to   convey
meaning,   add   complexity,   and   enhance   the   structure   of   their   sentences.   Through
the exploration of examples and analysis, we will further illuminate the nuances of
each verbal type, empowering writers to wield them with confidence and precision
in their own compositions.
The   actuality   of   research   on   the   theme   of   "Verbals:   Their   grammatical
categories   and   syntactic   functions"   lies   in   its   importance   for   both   theoretical
linguistics and practical language use. Here's why it's relevant:
Foundation   for   Language   Learning:   Understanding   verbals   is   fundamental   to
language   learning   and   acquisition.   By   studying   their   grammatical   categories   and
syntactic   functions,   researchers   can   uncover   insights   into   how   language   is
structured and processed by learners.
Grammar Instruction: In language teaching, verbals play a crucial role in grammar
instruction.   Research   in   this   area   can   inform   educators   on   effective   pedagogical
approaches for teaching verbals to learners of different proficiency levels.
Natural   Language   Processing   (NLP):   In   the   field   of   computational   linguistics,
research   on   verbals   is   essential   for   developing   accurate   NLP   models   and
algorithms. By understanding the grammatical properties and syntactic functions of
verbals, researchers can improve machine learning systems' ability to analyze and
generate natural language text.
4 Literary Analysis: Literary scholars often examine the use of verbals in literature to
understand authors' stylistic choices and narrative techniques. Research on verbals
can   contribute   to   literary   analysis   by   providing   insights   into   how   authors
manipulate language for artistic purposes.
Cross-Linguistic   Studies:   Comparative   studies   of   verbals   across   different
languages   can   shed   light   on   universal   linguistic   principles   as   well   as   language-
specific   phenomena.   Research   in   this   area   contributes   to   our   understanding   of
linguistic diversity and typological variation. Psycholinguistics: Investigating how
verbals are processed in the brain can provide valuable insights into the cognitive
mechanisms   underlying   language   comprehension   and   production.   This   research
has implications for understanding language disorders, language development, and
cognitive aging.
Overall,   research   on   verbals'   grammatical   categories   and   syntactic   functions   is
pertinent   to   various   fields   within   linguistics   and   beyond,   contributing   to   our
broader understanding of language structure, usage, and processing.
The   purpose   of   this   coursework   is   to   provide   students   with   a
comprehensive   understanding   of   verbals,   including   gerunds,   participles,   and
infinitives.   Through   an   exploration   of   their   grammatical   categories   and   syntactic
functions, students will learn to recognize, analyze, and effectively use verbals in
both   spoken   and   written   English.   By   the   end   of   the   course,   students   will   be
equipped   with   the   knowledge   and   skills   to   identify   verbals   in   various   contexts,
understand   their   grammatical   roles,   and   apply   them   accurately   to   enhance   their
communication   abilities.   Additionally,   the   course   aims   to   foster   critical   thinking
and   analytical   skills   through   comparative   analysis   and   practical   application
exercises,   empowering   students   to   communicate   more   confidently   and
persuasively in their academic, professional, and personal endeavors.
5 The   subject   of   research   on   the   theme   "Verbals:   Their   grammatical
categories and syntactic functions" focuses on exploring and analyzing the intricate
aspects of verbals in language. The research delves into several key areas:
Grammatical   Categories   of   Verbals:   Investigating   the   various   grammatical
categories   associated   with   gerunds,   participles,   and   infinitives.   This   includes
examining   how   verbals   express   tense,   aspect,   voice,   and   other   grammatical
features within linguistic frameworks.
Syntactic Functions of Verbals: Analyzing the diverse syntactic roles that verbals
play   within   sentences   and   discourse.   This   involves   studying   their   functions   as
subjects,   objects,   complements,   modifiers,   and   adjuncts,   as   well   as   their
interactions with other elements in sentence structure.
Comparative   Analysis:   Conducting   comparative   analyses   to   identify   similarities
and differences among different types of verbals and their usage across languages
or within specific linguistic contexts. This may involve cross-linguistic studies or
diachronic analyses to trace the historical development of verbal constructions.
Pedagogical   Implications:   Examining   the   implications   of   understanding   verbals'
grammatical categories and syntactic functions for language teaching and learning.
This   could   involve   investigating   effective   instructional   strategies,   curriculum
design,   and   assessment   methods   for   teaching   verbals   to   learners   of   different
proficiency levels.
Psycholinguistic   Perspectives:   Exploring   the   cognitive   processes   involved   in   the
comprehension and production of sentences containing verbals. This may include
studies on how verbals are processed in the brain, the role of working memory in
syntactic   processing,   and   the   impact   of   individual   differences   on   verbal
comprehension.
Practical Applications: Investigating practical applications of research findings on
verbals, such as developing computational models for natural language processing,
6 enhancing   writing   and   editing   tools,   or   improving   language   assessment
instruments.
Overall,   the   research   on   verbals'   grammatical   categories   and   syntactic   functions
contributes to our understanding of language structure, usage, and processing, with
implications   for   various   fields   including   linguistics,   education,   psychology,   and
computational science.
The object of this coursework  is to delve deeply into the realm of verbals,
focusing   specifically   on   their   grammatical   categories   and   syntactic   functions.   By
the end of the course, students should be able to: Identify and distinguish between
gerunds, participles, and infinitives. Understand the grammatical  categories (such
as   tense,   aspect,   and   voice)   associated   with   each   type   of   verbal.   Analyze   the
syntactic   functions   of   verbals   within   sentences,   including   their   roles   as   subjects,
objects,   complements,   modifiers,   and   more.   Apply   this   knowledge   to   accurately
parse and construct sentences containing verbals. Develop advanced proficiency in
using   verbals   effectively   in   both   spoken   and   written   communication   contexts.
Engage   in   comparative   analysis   to   recognize   similarities   and   differences   among
various types of verbals. Enhance critical thinking skills by examining the nuanced
nuances of verbal usage in literature, professional writing, and everyday discourse.
Overall,   the   course   aims   to   empower   students   with   a   solid   understanding   of
verbals, enabling them  to communicate  with clarity, precision, and  sophistication
in diverse linguistic settings.
Structure of the course work.  The content of the work is reflected in the structure
of the work, which consists of an introduction, chapters, conclusion and the list of
used literature. The introduction substantiates the relevance of the chosen research
topic; formulates the goal and objectives; defines the object and subject  of study;
presents   the   methodology   and   basic   research   methods;   reveals   scientific   novelty,
theoretical significance and practical value of the work. The first chapter analyses
the introduction to verbals. The second chapter  analyses the  overview of the three
types of verbals: gerunds, participles, infinitives.
7 CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION TO VERBALS
1.1. Definition of verbals
A   verbal   is   a   verb   operating   as   another   part   of   speech,   such   as   a   noun,   an
adjective, or an adverb. A verbal also can function in different sentence roles such
as subject, direct object, subject complement, and object of a preposition. Verbals
have three forms: gerunds, participles, and infinitives.
Verbals: Gerunds
Even   though   gerunds   look   like   present   participles   (i.e.,   they   also   end   "-ing"),   a
gerund is a noun, not an adjective. Here are some examples of gerunds (shaded):
You   don't   stop   laughing   because   you   grow   old.   You   grow   old   because   you   stop
laughing. (Comedian Michael Pritchard)
Discovery consists of seeing what everybody has seen and thinking what nobody
has thought. (Biochemist Albert Szent-Gyorgyi)
I have never taken any exercise except sleeping and resting. (Author Mark Twain)
A   gerund   will   often   appear   in   a   gerund   phrase.   A   gerund   phrase   consists   of   a
gerund, its object, and all modifiers. For example (gerunds in bold with the gerund
phrases shaded):
Singing the words out loud helped him with his stammer.
I started by photographing birds in my garden.
Read more about gerund phrases.
Also known as a verbal noun, a gerund adds -ing to the end of a verb and becomes
a noun, e.g., running, swimming, biking, hiking. Examples:
Running is Jason’s favorite form of exercise. (subject)
Yolanda would like to coach competitive swimming this summer. (direct object)
Those pumps aren’t the best shoes for biking. (object of a preposition)
8 Priscilla has many passions, but her main one is hiking. (subject complement)
Cooking is an essential skill.
("Cooking" is a gerund from the verb "to cook." In this example, it is functioning
as a noun.) 
Verbals: Participles
A participle is a verb form that  functions as an adjective. There are two types of
participles:   the   present   participle   (ending   "ing")   and   the   past   participle   (usually
ending "-ed,"" -d,"" -t,"" -en," or "-n").
Here are some participles being used as adjectives:
The Verb The Present Participle The Past Participle
To bake the baking bread the baked bread
To print the printing document the printed document
To lower the lowering prices the lowered prices
Here are some real-life examples:
A   stirring   dwarf   we   do   allowance   give   before   a   sleeping   giant.   (Playwright
William Shakespeare)
(Two present participles)
Food is an important part of a balanced diet. (Author Fran Lebowitz)
(A past participle)
Often, a participle will head up a participle phrase that functions as an adjective. In
the   examples   below,   all   participles   are   in   bold   and   the   participle   phrases   are
shaded.
Drooling   saliva   over   the   day's   mail,   the   barking   boxer   quickly   singled   out   the
parcel from the bills and junk mail.
9 (This   example   has   two   present   participles.   The   first   heads   up   a   participle   phrase
that   describes   "the   barking   boxer."   The   second   modifies   "boxer"   in   the   normal
way.)
Baked in the oven for over six hours, the roast looked ruined.
(This example has two past participles. The first heads up a participle phrase that
describes "the roast." The second describes the roast as a subject complement.)
Read more about participle phrases.
There are two types of participle (past participles and present participles).
Where is the broken chair? ("Broken" is the past participle of the verb "to break."
In this example, it is functioning as an adjective.)
Where   is   the   boiling   water?   ("Boiling"   is   the   present   participle   of   the   verb   "to
boil." It is also functioning as an adjective.)
A participle is a past  (-ed, -en)  or present  (-ing) form  of  a verb being used as  an
adjective, e.g., streaming, falling (present); raised, praised (past). Examples:
The team celebrated under the streaming ribbons and falling confetti.
José likes the home design with the raised roof.
Natalia’s highly praised article addressed the latest topic of local discussion [2,19].
Verbals: Infinitives
An infinitive is a verb form (often preceded by "to," e.g., "to dance," "to sing") that
can function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. For example:
An infinitive as a noun:
To win was everything. (The infinitive is the subject of "was.")
Compare it to this:
10 Winning was everything. (This proves that the infinitive "to win" is being used as a
noun.)
An infinitive as an adjective:
It   is   an   appropriate   saving   to   propose.   (The   infinitive   modifies   "saving."   This
means it is functioning as an adjective.)
An infinitive is  the base  form  of  a verb before  it  is  conjugated. It  consists  of  the
word   to   and   the   present   form   of   the   verb   (the   infinitive   stem):   e.g.,   to   finish,   to
train, to know, to grow. As a verbal, it can function as a noun, an adjective, or an
adverb. Examples:
Jack is going home to vote. ("To vote" is the infinitive form of the verb "to vote."
In this example, it is functioning as an adverb telling us why Jack is going home.)
Is this the book you want to finish? (adjective modifying book)
Roger went to the sporting complex to train. (adverb modifying went)
To know is to grow. (nouns: subject and subject complement)
What Are Verbal Phrases?
So   far   we   have   discussed   the   definition   and   function   of   verbals.   When   we   add
modifiers to a verbal, we create a verbal phrase. Examples:
Running two miles around the track is Jason’s favorite form of exercise.
Have you read Natalia’s article praised for its topic of local discussion?
To know yourself is to grow in yourself.
Each sentence includes a verbal with other words that add to its meaning.
A verbal phrase further can be what is referred to as an absolute verbal phrase. In
this context, the phrase does not modify a specific sentence element such as a noun
or a verb. Rather, the absolute verbal phrase acts as a looser modifier of the whole
11 sentence. Some absolute verbal phrases are casual expressions with an infinitive or
a participle:
Speaking   of   technology,   when   are   you   finishing   your   robotic-lawnmower
prototype?
To put it mildly, that summer dress is the most garish garment I’ve ever seen.
As   you   can   see,   each   verbal   phrase   stands   apart   in   its   description,   adding
observation or interjection to the entire statement as opposed to enhancing a speech
part.   In   this   way,   it   serves   as   a   type   of   sentence   modifier.   An   absolute   verbal
phrase   might   also   be   what’s   known   as   a   nominative   absolute,   which   is   a   phrase
starting with a noun or  a pronoun that  serves  as the verbal’s subject. Nominative
absolutes   often   identify   causes   or   add   details   in   a   sentence   and   make   it   more
formal.   His   archives   lost   in   the   blaze,   Charles   began   trying   to   restore   what
information he could from his memory. The rain falling hard upon the waves, we
began   the   voyage   toward   the   uncharted   island.   Hat   tipped   toward   his   nose,
toothpick   rolling   lazily   on   his   lip,   the   gunslinger   stepped   through   the   saloon’s
swinging doors [3,81].
12 1.2. Role of verbals in grammar
Verbal plays an essential role in the sentences and framing of the parts of speech.
These roles include:
 The verbal will act as a primary subject of the sentence or an adjective, and
they will also identify the sentence’s main verb.
 They   add   a   lot   to   the   sentence   structure   and   elevate   the   writing   with   new
ideas.
 If   you   want   to   go   beyond   the   simple   structure   of   the   sentence,   then   it   is
essential for you to use a verbal in your sentence.
Characteristics
Various characteristics of a verbal differentiate it from the other parts of speech in
English. These are:
 One   of   the  primary   characteristics   of   a   verbal   is   you   can   communicate   the
message by directly or indirectly relating with the object.
 You don’t have to add any noun, adverb, or adjective in your sentence, and it
will play the role of all these. No other parts of speech can do this.
The Role of Verbals in Sentence Structure
A verbal has a very effective role in the structure of the sentence as it adds more
functions to the sentence. These are:
 They act as a type of phrase and function as an adjective, noun, or adverb of
the sentence.
 They   have   a   role   in   making   the   sentence   complex   and   defining   the   action
happening very effectively.
 If   you   want   to   avoid   writing   a   simple   sentence,   use   the   verbal   in   your
sentence to make it more compelling. 
 You can use it to make your writing more concise and clear, which will be
more efficient [4,97].
A verbal effectively interacts with the other elements of the sentence and conveys
the   exact   meaning   of   the   sentence   effectively.   These   elements   of   the   sentence
might be the articles or the main adverb.
13 Identifying Verbals in Sentences
Some tips will help you to recognize verbals in the sentence while you are reading
or   writing   the   sentence.   Identification   of   the   verbal   is   different   for   all   the   other
types of it. You can identify the verbal as:
Gerund
You   can   identify   a   gerund   when   you   see   the   verb   performing   as   a   noun   of   the
sentence and has ‘ing’ at its end. Example:
 I am playing in the field. (‘Play’ is the verb, ‘ing’ makes it a verbal, and it’s
functioning as a noun)
Participle
You   can   identify   the   participle   verbal   when   you   see   the   verb   functioning   as   an
adjective. The past participle will have ‘en or ‘ed’ while the present participle will
have ‘ing’. Example:
 She has written the exam with a blue pen. (‘Write’ is the verb, adding ‘en’
makes it verbal, and it functions as an adjective)
Infinitives
Infinitives will function as a noun, adjectives, or adverbs. You can identify it when
you see a ‘to’ before the sentence’s verb, making it an infinitive. Example:
 I want to visit London one day. (Adding ‘to’ with ‘visit’ makes it a verbal)
There is a worksheet below the article where you can test your skills to identify a
verbal in sentences.
Common Mistakes with Verbals
There   are   certain   mistakes   with   verbal,   which   is   crucial   for   you   to   know.   These
are:
 People always use the inconsistent form of the word when using verbals.
 It is a great problem when you mess up with the tense form of the sentence
while adding a verbal to it. You need to stick to the exact tense in which you want
to convey the action.
 Messing the subject-verb agreement is also a big mistake. Some people mix
the singular and plural antecedence while using the verbal.
14  Switching tenses among their dialogue tags is also a mistake that is possible.
The tips to avoid these mistakes are:
 Frame the sentence properly in your mind before writing or telling it.
 Repeat   the   sentence   in   your   mind   and   see   whether   it   is   making   proper
meaning or is awkward.
 Understand   all   the   types   of   verbal   and   use   the   effective   one   for   your
sentence.
 Know your subject-verb agreement properly [5,124].
Functions of gerunds in sentence
The gerund may be used in various syntactic functions. A single gerund occurs but
seldom. In most cases we find a gerundial phrase or a gerundial construction.
1.   The gerund as a subject:
 Avoiding   difficulties isn’t my method.   (Snow)
Talking   mends no holes. (proverb)
When   the  subject   of   the   sentence   is   a  gerundial   phrase,   the   subject   is   sometimes
placed after the predicate. Then the sentence begins with the anticipatory   it: 
It   was great   meeting   you here.
It’s no good   worrying.
2.   The gerund as a predicative.
Deciding is   acting.
Her aim is   mastering   English.
3.   The gerund as part of a compound verbal predicate.
15 a)   With   verbs   and   verbal   phrases   denoting   modality   the   gerund   forms   part   of   a
compound verbal modal predicate (to intend, to try, to attempt, can’t help):
We   intend   going   to Switzerland, and   climbing   Mount Blanc.   (Ch.   Bronte)
Joseph   could not help   admiring   the man.   (Heym)
b)   With   verbs   denoting   the   beginning,   the   duration,   or   the   end   of   an   action,   the
gerund forms part of a compound verbal aspect predicate.
She   began   sobbing   and   weeping.   (Dickens)
In the night it started   raining. (Hemingway)
4.   The gerund as an object.
The gerund may be used as a direct object and as a prepositional indirect object.
a) after the verbs associated only with the gerund–   to avoid, to delay, to put off, to
postpone, to mind (in interrogative and negative sentences), to excuse, to fancy, to
want   (=   to   need),   to   require,   to   need   –   the   gerund   is   found   in   the   function   of   a
direct object:
Avoid   making   mistakes.
Excuse my   interrupting   you.
Fancy   having   to go back tonight.
The house wanted   painting 
b) we find the gerund as a direct object after the adjectives   like, busy   and   worth:
She was busy   writing.
We saw all the plays worth   seeing.
16 I felt like   laughing.
c)   the   gerund   occurs   as   a   direct   object   after   the   verbs   associated   both   with   the
infinitive   and   the   gerund   (to   neglect,   to   like,   to   dislike,   to   hate,   to   prefer,   to
enjoy   etc.):
She likes   sitting   in the sun.
She preferred   staying   at home [6,248].
The gerund is used as a prepositional object:
1. after phrasal verbs and verb phrases used with a preposition (to think of, to
insist on, to rely on, to miss the opportunity of, to like the idea of   etc.):
They   talked   of   going   somewhere else.
I really   thank   you   for   taking   all this trouble.
b) after adjectives used predicatively (fond of, tired of, proud of, ignorant of, used
to):
He was never   tired of   talking   about her, and I was never   tired of   hearing.
I am well   used to   travelling.
Predicative constructions with the gerund form a complex object as they consist of
two distinct elements, nominal and verbal.
Perhaps   you   wouldn't   mind   Richard's   coming   in?   (Dickens)   (COMPLEX
OBJECT).
Aunt Augusta won't quite approve of   your being   here.   (Wilde)   (PREPOSITIONAL
COMPLEX OBJECT).
17 5.   The gerund as an attribute.
In   this   function   the   gerund   is   always   preceded   by   a   preposition,   mostly   the
preposition   of.
Не  was born with the gift of   winning   hearts.   (Gaskell)
...there's no chance of their   getting   married   for years.   (Galsworthy)
Presently there was the sound of the car   being brought   to the door.
6.   The gerund as an adverbial modifier.
In   this   function   the  gerund   is   always   preceded   by  a   preposition.   It   is   used   in   the
function of an adverbial modifier of time, manner, attendant circumstances, cause,
condition,   purpose   and   concession;   the   most   common   functions   are   those   of
adverbial modifiers of time, manner, and attendant circumstances.
a)   As   an   adverbial   modifier   of   time   the   gerund   is   preceded   by   the
prepositions   after, before, on   (upon),   in   о r   at.
On   arriving   at the garden entrance, he stopped to look at the view.
After   talking   to us for a moment, he left.
b)   As   an   adverbial   modifier   of   manner   the   gerund   is   used   with   the
prepositions   by   or   in.
She startled her father by   bursting   into tears.   (Gaskell)
The day was spent in   packing.   (Du Maurier)
с ) As an adverbial  modifier  of   attendant  circumstances   the gerund is preceded by
the preposition   without.
18 She was not brilliant, not active, but rather peaceful without   knowing   it.   (Dreiser)
d)   As   an   adverbial   modifier   of   purpose,   the   gerund   is   chiefly   used   with   the
preposition   for.
... one side of the gallery was used   for dancing.   (Eliot)
е )   As   an   adverbial   modifier   of   condition   the   gerund   is   preceded   by   the
preposition   without.
He has no right to come bothering you and papa without   being invited.   (Shaw)
f)  As   an adverbial   modifier  of   cause   the gerund  is  used  with the  prepositions   for,
for fear of, owing to.
I feel the better myself for   having spent   a good deal of my time abroad.   (Eliot)
I dared not attend the funeral for fear of   making   a fool of myself.   (Coppard)
g)   As   an   adverbial   modifier   of   concession   the   gerund   is   preceded   by   the
preposition   in spite of.
In spite of   being   busy, he did all he could to help her.
Not knowing   Miss Betsy’s address, David could not write to her.   (Dickens)   (cause)
David   left   London   without   telling   anybody   about   it.   (Dickens)   (attendant
circumstances)
The boys could not leave Salem House   without asking   for permission [7,113].
CONCLUSION ON CHAPTER I
In conclusion, understanding verbals is essential for mastering the intricacies
of   English   grammar.   Participles,   gerunds,   and   infinitives   all   play   unique   roles   in
sentence   structure   and   convey   nuanced   meanings.   By   recognizing   and   correctly
using these verbals, writers can enhance the clarity, coherence, and sophistication
19 of their writing. So, whether you're crafting a compelling narrative, composing an
academic   essay,   or   simply   communicating  effectively,  a   solid   grasp   of   verbals   is
indispensable. Furthermore, delving into the world of verbals opens up avenues for
creativity   and   expression   in   writing.   The   flexibility   of   participles   allows   for
dynamic   descriptions,   while   gerunds   add   action   and   vitality   to   sentences.
Infinitives offer opportunities for conciseness and precision in expressing purpose
or intent. By harnessing the power of these verbals, writers can imbue their prose
with   depth,   imagery,   and   rhythm.   Thus,   mastering   verbals   not   only   enhances
grammatical   proficiency   but   also   enriches   the   artistry   of   language,   empowering
writers to communicate with impact and finesse.
CHAPTER II. OVERVIEW OF THE THREE TYPES OF VERBALS:
GERUNDS, PARTICIPLES, INFINITIVES  
2.1  Detailed explanation of gerunds: form and function
20 A   gerund   is   a   verbal   that   ends   in   -ing   and   functions   as   a   noun.   The   term
verbal   indicates   that   a   gerund,   like   the   other   two   kinds   of   verbals,   is   based   on   a
verb  and   therefore  expresses   action   or   a   state   of   being.   However,  since   a  gerund
functions as a noun, it occupies some positions in a sentence that a noun ordinarily
would,   for   example:   subject,   direct   object,   subject   complement,   and   object   of
preposition.
Gerund as subject:
Traveling might satisfy your desire for new experiences. (Traveling is the gerund.)
The   study   abroad   program   might   satisfy   your   desire   for   new   experiences.   (The
gerund has been removed.)
Gerund as direct object:
They do not appreciate my singing. (The gerund is singing.)
They do not appreciate my assistance. (The gerund has been removed)
Gerund as subject complement:
My cat's favorite activity is sleeping. (The gerund is sleeping.)
My cat's favorite food is salmon. (The gerund has been removed.)
Gerund as object of preposition:
The police arrested him for speeding. (The gerund is speeding.)
The police arrested him for criminal activity. (The gerund has been removed.)
A   gerund   phrase   is   a   group   of   words   consisting   of   a   gerund   and   the   modifier(s)
and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect
object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the gerund, such as:
The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence [8,256].
Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than what we're trying to do.
Finding (gerund)
a needle (direct object of action expressed in gerund)
in a haystack (prepositional phrase as adverb)
The gerund phrase functions as the direct object of the verb appreciate.
I hope that you appreciate my offering you this opportunity.
my (possessive pronoun adjective form, modifying the gerund)
21 offering (gerund)
you (indirect object of action expressed in gerund)
this opportunity (direct object of action expressed in gerund)
The gerund phrase functions as the subject complement.
Tom's favorite tactic has been jabbering away to his constituents.
jabbering   away   to   (gerund)   his   constituents   (direct   object   of   action   expressed   in
gerund)
The gerund phrase functions as the object of the preposition for.
You might get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid work.
faking (gerund)
an illness (direct object of action expressed in gerund)
to avoid work (infinitive phrase as adverb)
The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence.
Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy.
Being (gerund)
the   boss   (subject   complement   for   Jeff,   via   state   of   being   expressed   in   gerund)
[9,273].
2.2.  Uderstanding present and past participles: formation and usage
A participle is a word formed from a verb. Usually, this occurs by adding a
suffix to the verb, but sometimes there are irregular formations. In these participle
22 examples,   you'll   see   they   can   be   used   as   adjectives,   nouns,   or   as   part   of   a
compound   verb   in   English.   Participles   as   Parts   of   Verbs.   There   are   two   types   of
participles in English: past and present.
Present Participle
The present participle is always formed by adding the suffix -ing to a verb. When
used   with   an   auxiliary   verb   like   "is,"   "am,"   "are,"   "was"   or   "were,"   the   present
participle forms a compound verb that describes an action that is in progress. For
example:
 She is babysitting tonight.
 I am singing a song.
 You are sharing your toys very nicely.
 It was raining a little yesterday.
 They were talking too much and got a detention.
Past Participle
The past  participle is often, but  not  always,  formed by adding the suffix -ed to a
verb.   It   can   also   be   paired   with   an   auxiliary   verb   like   "was,"   "were,"   "has"   and
"had" to show that an action has been completed. For example:
 He was finished with the project.
 The cookies were baked fresh this morning.
 She has burned dinner before.
 I have lived an interesting life.
 He has lied to me too many times!
 Note that many past participles in English are irregular and don't use the -ed
suffix. 
For example:
 The song was sung well by the rising opera star.
 The new bed was brought into the house carefully by the deliverymen.
 The dog has dug a big hole in the back yard.
 The doctor said that you have broken your arm.
 We have been very worried about you [10,310].
23 Participles as Adjectives
Both present  and past  participles can be used  as participial  adjectives to describe
nouns and pronouns. In this case, the descriptive word is placed before the noun in
the sentence. 
For example:
 The going rate for freelancers is more than minimum wage.
 He took a gardening class at the community college.
 My baked beans come from an old family recipe.
 The dyed fabric should not be washed in hot water.
 The broken record isn't worth keeping.
Participles as Nouns
It's also possible to use present participles as nouns in English. In these cases, only
participles with -ing endings will work. 
For example:
 Sewing is easy once you know how.
 His batting is better than his fielding.
 He hated sitting in the backseat of the car.
 The teacher acknowledged Sally's studying with extra credit points.
 Lying under oath is a crime.
Once you understand how past and present participles are formed, it's easier to pick
them   out   in   sentences.   By   studying   these   examples,   you   should   be   able   to   use
participles as verbs, nouns, and adjectives with ease [11,7].
2.3.  In-depth study of infinitives: types and functions
An infinitive verbal, or infinitive verb, is the unconjugated form of a verb. It
looks   exactly   the   same   as   the   simple   present   form   of   a  verb.  For   example,   some
infinitive verbs include   dance,   climb,   cook,   run, and   play. Conjugation is the act of
24 changing a verb to fit the subject, tense, or mood. You may add an   -s   to say, "She
climbs." You might add an   -ed   to make the verb past tense, as in, "She climbed."
Often, an infinitive also has the word "to" in front of it, as in   to dance,   to run, etc.
However, it does not have to have the "to." We’ll talk more about those types of
infinitive verbs later in the article. Infinitives are a type of non-finite verb, which
means it will never be the main verb of a sentence. Finite verbs are verbs that can
be conjugated and used as the main verb. Infinitive verbals function as other parts
of speech instead of verbs. They can act as adjectives, adverbs, and nouns. Read on
for examples of how infinitive verbals are used in sentences [12,23].
What Is the Difference between the Infinitive Verb and a Conjugated Verb?
Without the "to" in front, infinitive verbs look just like the simple present tense of
a   verb,   with   the   exception   of   the   third-person   singular   form,   which   requires   an   -
s   or   -es. 
So,   what’s   the   difference   between   infinitive   verbs   and   the   simple   present
conjugated verbs?
It has to do with the function. Infinitive phrases do not function like verbs. It is not
directly preceded by a subject. Let’s look at an example:
Simple Present:   You cook.
Infinitive Verb:   You like   to cook.
The infinitive "to cook" acts like a noun because it is the answer to "what do you
like?"
I’ve always found it easier to understand infinitives in the context of learning other
languages.
If  you  have  ever  studied  another   language, the  verbs  you learn  how to  conjugate
are infinitives. It’s the most basic form of a verb [13,38].
For example, you might learn the Spanish word "comer" in an introductory class.
In English, this is the verb "know" or "to know." These are both infinitive verbs.
Neither   are   preceded   by   a   subject;   they   follow   other   verbs   that   are   conjugated.
Because our simple present tense doesn’t require much change when we conjugate,
we  don’t   always  learn about   infinitive  verb  phrases  when  we  learn basic  English
25 grammar.   However,   when   you   are   looking   up   a   verb   in   a   dictionary,   you   are
looking   up   an   infinitive   verb.   We   use   infinitive   phrases   all   the   time,   even   if   we
aren’t aware of it!
How Do I Identify the Infinitive Verb in a Sentence?
There are several ways you can identify an infinitive verb in a sentence. First, ask
yourself if it directly follows a subject or if it has been conjugated. If so, it is not an
infinitive verb.
A quick way to identify an infinitive is by looking for the word "to" in front of the
verb. However, this won’t always work, as with bare infinitives. We’ll talk about
those in the next section.
The best way to identify an infinitive phrase is to ask yourself if the infinitive verb
is acting as a noun, adjective, or adverb. In other words, if you replace it with one
of  those  parts of  speech,  will  the  sentence  still  make sense?  If  the answer  is  yes,
you’ve found an infinitive.
Do Infinitives Always Use “To”?
Bare   infinitives   can   make   identifying   infinitives   more   complicated.   A   bare
infinitive   is   an   infinitive   verb   that   does   not   use   "to."   When   do   we   use   bare
infinitives?
We   use   bare   infinitives   with   certain   verbs   called   modal   verbs   or   helping   verbs.
These verbs include words like   might,   may,   could,   can,   should, and   will, to name a
few.   In   the   examples   below,   we   have   highlighted   the   infinitive   and   bolded   the
modal verb.
He   can   cook   very well.
We   must   attend   the family dinner.
I   might   visit   over the holidays.
Sometimes,   a   bare   infinitive   follows   another   type   of   special   verb.   These   other
verbs are often   sensing verbs, and they require a direct object before the infinitive.
Here's an example. The special verb is in bold, the direct object is underlined, and
the infinitive is highlighted.
She   heard   the dog   bark.
26 Only   certain   verbs   follow   this   pattern,   including   verbs
like   feel,   see,   hear,   watch,   help,   let,   and   make.   These   special   verbs   can   be
conjugated,   but   it   will   still   follow   the   format   of   special   verb   +   direct   object   +
infinitive.
What Are the Three Functions of Infinitives?
We’ve already discussed that infinitives have three functions. They can be nouns,
adjectives, and adverbs. But what does this look like? Let's cover each of these in
more detail.
How Are Infinitive Verbals Used as Nouns?
Sometimes,   verbs   precede   a   direct   object,   which   is   a   noun.   You   might   say,   "He
likes cookies." In this case, the direct object is "cookies."
But infinitives can also act like the direct object after certain verbs. They can even
act   as   a   subject!   Here   are   some   examples   where   infinitives   are   functioning   as
nouns:
Sarah loves   to fish.
The dog wants   to nap.
To marry   was the only thing Kitty Bennet wanted.
We   could   replace   any   of   those   with   a   noun,   and   the   sentence   would   still   make
sense. We could say, "Sarah loves fish" or "The dog wants a nap." We could even
say, "Marriage was the only thing Kitty Bennet wanted."
How Do We Use Infinitive Verbals as Adjectives?
Adjectives   modify   nouns.   When   an   infinitive   verb   modifies   a   noun,   either   an
indirect or direct object, it functions as an adjective.
Let’s look at a few examples. Can you identify which noun the infinitives modify?
I need milk   to drink   every morning.
He gave me an essay   to edit.
Johnny has the potential   to be   the top of his class.
In the first example, the infinitive "to drink" modifies the noun "milk." In example
two,   "to   edit"   modifies   "essay."   Finally,   "to   be"   modifies   the   noun   "potential.”
[14,67].
27 How Are Infinitive Verbals Used as Adverbs?
An adverb usually describes or in some way modifies a verb. Infinitives are often
used as adverbs to explain how, when, why, how much, or where. In other words,
the infinitive as an adverb provides more information about the verb it modifies.
The   infinitive   might   not   immediately   follow   the   verb   in   a   sentence,   so   it’s
important to ask yourself if the infinitive is modifying a noun or a verb. Here are
some examples of infinitives that function as adverbs:
I pointed   to show   them where the restrooms were.
The man crashed his car   to receive   an insurance pay-out.
My friend came to my presentation   to show   her support.
In   the   first   sentence,   the   infinitive   comes   immediately   after   the   verb   that   it
modifies (pointed). In the second example, the infinitive "to receive" is explaining
why the man crashed his car. It is modifying "crashed," not "car," so it’s an adverb.
The same is true in the third sentence: "to show" modifies the verb "came."
What Is an Infinitive Phrase?
An   infinitive   phrase   is   a   phrase   that   includes   an   infinitive,   along   with   any   other
complements or modifiers. These complements and modifiers will include nouns,
articles, adverbs, and adjectives. Be careful not to confuse an infinitive phrase with
an   adverbial   phrase.   An   adverbial   phrase   might   serve   the   same   function   in   a
sentence, but it doesn’t have an infinitive. Look for the infinitive verb. If it’s there,
you have an infinitive phrase. Here are some examples of sentences with infinitive
phrases. We’ve highlighted the infinitive phrase in each.
When I was little, I wanted   to be a rock star.
To own a boat   was his greatest dream.
She has enough motivation   to beat every one of her competitors.
You can read more about infinitive phrases   here
Is It Wrong to Use a Split Infinitive?
When   you   insert   a   word   or   words   between   the   "to"   and   the   infinitive   form   of   a
verb, we call this a split infinitive. Split infinitives are always a hotly debated topic
in grammar. Here are a few examples of split infinitives:
28 I need   to quickly run   to the store.
To truly understand   someone, you must have deep conversations.
We need   to more than double   sales this quarter.
In   prescriptive   grammar,   most   consider   the   split   infinitive   to   be   grammatically
incorrect.   They   think   an   infinitive   verb   should   never   be   split.   However,   other
people don’t think it’s a big deal to split it. In fact, sometimes a split infinitive just
sounds   better.   One   of   the   most   famous   examples   of   a   split   infinitive   comes
from   Star   Trek.   In   the   opening   sequence   of   the   original   series   and   The   Next
Generation, we hear, "to boldly go where no one has gone before."
To   be   grammatically   correct   according   to   prescriptive   grammar   rules,   the   quote
should  be, "to  go boldly  where no  one has   gone before." It  just  doesn’t   pack  the
same punch. If you split an infinitive, ProWritingAid can help point it out to you
so you can decide if you want to change it.
But how do you decide if you should split it?
If  it’s  informal  or  fiction writing, you can  leave it. We naturally speak  with split
infinitives all the time. Otherwise, try to rearrange the infinitive phrase to remove
the split infinitive. If it still sounds fine and natural, you can remove the split. If it
sounds incorrect or loses emphasis, leave the split infinitive. Let’s take one of our
examples   from   above   and   remove   the   split   infinitive.   We   need   more   than   to
double   sales this quarter. It doesn’t sound like natural English. In this case, leaving
the split infinitive "to more than double" is the better option. But if you are writing
something very formal or technical, it’s probably best to remove the split infinitive.
Always check your style guides then use your judgment. Remember, good writing
is all about clarity.
Infinitives are one of those grammar elements that we use all the time but may not
be aware of. We hope you have a better understanding of what infinitives are and
how they function in sentences. Whether you are writing a novel, essay, article, or
email, good writing is an essential part of communicating your ideas [15,71].
29 CONCLUSION ON CHAPTER II
In   conclusion,   understanding   the   three   types   of   verbals—gerunds,
participles,   and   infinitives—is   essential   for   mastering   English   grammar.   Gerunds
function   as   nouns,   participles   as   adjectives,   and   infinitives   as   both   nouns   and
adjectives.   Each   serves   a   distinct   purpose   in   constructing   sentences,   offering
30 versatility and depth to language expression. By grasping their roles and nuances,
writers   can   enhance   the   clarity   and   richness   of   their   writing,   creating   more
dynamic   and   engaging   compositions.   Moreover,   recognizing   how   these   verbals
interact   with   other   elements   of   speech,   such   as   subjects,   objects,   and   modifiers,
facilitates   more   precise   communication.   Gerunds,   formed   by   adding   "-ing"   to
verbs,   convey   actions   as   nouns,   as   in   "swimming   is   her   favorite   activity."
Participles, formed by adding "-ing" or "-ed" to verbs, modify nouns or pronouns,
as in "the running horse" or "the excited children." Infinitives, typically preceded
by "to," serve various functions, from indicating purpose ("She went to study") to
acting   as   modifiers   ("a   book   to   read").   By   mastering   the   distinctions   among
gerunds,   participles,   and   infinitives,   writers   can   craft   sentences   with   clarity,
coherence, and sophistication.
CONCLUSION
In   conclusion,   verbals   play   crucial   roles   in   English   grammar,   offering
versatility   and   depth   to   language   expression.   Understanding   their   grammatical
categories   and   syntactic   functions   is   essential   for   effective   communication.
Gerunds function as nouns, participles as adjectives, and infinitives as both nouns
and adjectives. Each serves a distinct purpose in constructing sentences, interacting
31 with   other   elements   of   speech   to   convey   meaning   and   nuance.   By   mastering   the
distinctions   among   these   verbals,   writers   can   create   more   dynamic   and   engaging
compositions,   enhancing   clarity,   coherence,   and   sophistication   in   their   language
use.   Understanding   the   nuances   of   verbals   also   allows   writers   to   manipulate
sentence   structure   effectively,   creating   emphasis,   variety,   and   rhythm   in   their
prose.   Whether   employing   gerunds   to   emphasize   ongoing   actions,   participles   to
vividly describe scenes, or infinitives to convey intention or possibility, mastery of
these   verbals   empowers   writers   to   express   themselves   with   precision   and
eloquence.   Moreover,   a   deep   understanding   of   verbals   enhances   reading
comprehension, enabling readers to decipher complex sentences and appreciate the
subtleties  of  language.  In essence,   the  study  of  verbals  enriches  both writing and
reading experiences,  fostering a deeper  appreciation for the intricacies  of English
grammar and syntax.
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of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 255–
278. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and 
Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-
e ff ects models using lme4.  J. Stat. Softw.  67,
1–48
36 Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 255–
278. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
37 Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and 
Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-
e ff ects models using lme4.  J. Stat. Softw.  67,
1–48
Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
38 for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 255–
278. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and 
Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-
e ff ects models using lme4.  J. Stat. Softw.  67,
1–48
Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
39 doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 255–
278. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and 
Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-
e ff ects models using lme4.  J. Stat. Softw.  67,
1–48
Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
40 Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 255–
278. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and 
Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-
e ff ects models using lme4.  J. Stat. Softw.  67,
1–48
Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
41 production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 255–
278. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and 
Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-
e ff ects models using lme4.  J. Stat. Softw.  67,
1–48
Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
42 2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 255–
278. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and 
Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-
e ff ects models using lme4.  J. Stat. Softw.  67,
1–48
Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
43 sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 255–
278. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and 
Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-
44 e ff ects models using lme4.  J. Stat. Softw.  67,
1–48
Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 255–
45 278. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and 
Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-
e ff ects models using lme4.  J. Stat. Softw.  67,
1–48
Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
46 Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 255–
278. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and 
Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-
e ff ects models using lme4.  J. Stat. Softw.  67,
1–48
Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
47 indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 255–
278. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and 
Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-
e ff ects models using lme4.  J. Stat. Softw.  67,
1–48
Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
48 35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 255–
278. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and 
Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-
e ff ects models using lme4.  J. Stat. Softw.  67,
1–48
Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
2014.887125
49 Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 255–
278. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and 
Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-
e ff ects models using lme4.  J. Stat. Softw.  67,
1–48
Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
50 neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 255–
278. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and 
Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-
e ff ects models using lme4.  J. Stat. Softw.  67,
1–48
51 Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 255–
278. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
52 Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and 
Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-
e ff ects models using lme4.  J. Stat. Softw.  67,
1–48
Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
53 for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 255–
278. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and 
Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-
e ff ects models using lme4.  J. Stat. Softw.  67,
1–48
Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
54 doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 255–
278. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and 
Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-
e ff ects models using lme4.  J. Stat. Softw.  67,
1–48
Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
55 Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 255–
278. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and 
Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-
e ff ects models using lme4.  J. Stat. Softw.  67,
1–48
Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
56 production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 255–
278. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and 
Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-
e ff ects models using lme4.  J. Stat. Softw.  67,
1–48
Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
57 2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 255–
278. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and 
Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-
e ff ects models using lme4.  J. Stat. Softw.  67,
1–48
Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
58 sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 255–
278. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and 
Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-
59 e ff ects models using lme4.  J. Stat. Softw.  67,
1–48
Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 255–
60 278. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and 
Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-
e ff ects models using lme4.  J. Stat. Softw.  67,
1–48
Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
61 Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 255–
278. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and 
Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-
e ff ects models using lme4.  J. Stat. Softw.  67,
1–48
Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
62 indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 
Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
63 doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 
Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
64 Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 
Agnew, Z. K. K., Van De Koot, H., 
McGettigan, C., and Scott, S. K. K. (2014). Do
sentences with unaccusative verbs involve 
syntactic movement? Evidence from
neuroimaging.  Lang. Cogn. Neurosci.  29, 
1035–1045. doi: 10.1080/23273798.
2014.887125
Allum, P. H., and Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope
of Lexical access in spoken sentence
production: implications for the conceptual-
syntactic interface.  J. Exp. Psychol.
35, 1240–1255. doi: 10.1037/a0016367
Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). Visual salience 
e ff ects on speaker choices: direct or
indirect in fl uences on linguistic processing? 
Appl. Psycholinguist.  38, 601–631.
doi: 10.1017/S0142716416000345
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., and Tily, 
H. J. (2013). Random e ff ects structure
65 for con fi rmatory hypothesis testing: keep it 
maximal.  J. Mem. Lang.  68, 
66