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The usage of rhetorical devices in political speeches

Sotib olish

THE MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND INNOVATION
OF
THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN
SAMARKAND STATE INSTITUTE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
FACULTY OF ENGLISH PHILOLOGY AND TRANSLATION STUDIES
CHAIR OF ENGLISH PHILOLOGY

COURSE WORK
Theme: The usage of rhetorical devices in political speeches
“RECOMMENDEND TO PROVE” “SCIENTIFIC SUPERVISOR”
English Philology

Samarqand

1

CONTENT
INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………….……...…..3
CHAPTER I. THE IMPORTANCE OF THE RHETORICAL DEVICES IN
POLITICAL SPEECH
1.1. The general information about rhetorical devices…………………..………....6
1.2. Politicians and rhetoric……………………………………...……………. ….12
Conclusion on chapter I ……………………………………..……………….…15
CHAPTER II. THE TYPES AND VALUE OF THE RHETORICAL
DEVICES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
2.1. The data on metaphor as a rhetorical device……….…………..…………….17
2.2. The using of the rhetorical devices in speech……………………….....…......24
Conclusion on chapter II ………………..……………………………….……...29
CONCLUSION ……………………………..…………………………………...31
THE LIST OF USED LITERATURE ……………….………………………..33

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INTRODUCTION
As the President of the republic of Uzbekistan Sh. Mirziyoyev noted, “…in the
field of education and morals, the “practical example” will have decisive
importance. First of all, we must set a practical example for our children in all
spheres- in being loyal to the country, the people, in loving science, in the
profession, in fulfilling our duty to parents and society wholeheartedly” [1, 331].
The principal objective of this paper was to explore what rhetorical strategies and
stylistic devices of President Barack Obama use in his political speeches and how
these devices help him to gain the audience's attention and render the message. The
speeches of President B. Obama were analyzed in order to highlight the patterns of
the usage of rhetorical strategies and to investigate the stylistic devices which are
aimed at making speech more emphatic, expressive and persuasive. The method
chosen for the study was content analysis including generalization and evaluation
of the results. The results of the research showed a significant contribution of
stylistic means to persuade the listeners on an emotional level or even to
manipulate them. Since the ancient times political rhetoric was the attention of
many orators. Rhetoric was considered as a valuable skill of communication.
Nowadays, political leaders are concerned about their use of language, too. They
always pay attention to various rhetoric techniques how to enhance their ideas and
due to this to glamorize their public image. In the process of time, rhetoric has
become a crucial way to spread their ideology to manipulate the audience's
emotions and to become more prominent figure among other rivals in everyday
interactions. Language is the significant tool of persuasion. Therefore, to gain a
favorable public opinion, politicians employ appropriate linguistic recourses in
their political speeches. Stylistic devices help to embellish the speech and to attain
success in public debates or in political discussions. Political leaders apply stylistic
devices in their remarks in order to strengthen their thoughts and arguments on an
issue or to create an impression of an authoritative leader. Terefore, language is a
powerful instrument in gaining public support in elections or to achieve any
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political interests. Nigel Farage’s speeches and rhetoric have been instrumental and
effective in the British voters’ decision to withdraw from the European Union.
This paper aims to study rhetorical devices in the speeches of Nigel Farage at the
European Parliament: list constructions, contrastive pairs etc. Having identified
and classified the rhetorical devices, I proceed to perform a frequency analysis
with the purpose of determining the number of times each device occurs. Thus the
research questions are: what rhetorical devices permeate the speeches? and what is
their frequency of occurrence? In order to achieve these objectives, I have studied
twenty speeches Farage delivered at the European Parliament. I examine rhetorical
devices that were previously treated as nonessential in Farage’s speeches and I
present arguments against the claim that the three-part list is the most common
strategy in political speeches.
The object of this course work is to overview the theoretical material under the
question. To analyses the speeches of B. Obama; to highlight the patterns of the
usage of rhetorical strategies. To investigate the stylistic devices which are aimed
at making speech more emphatic, expressive and persuasive.
The subject of the study is the way in which strategies of persuasion in political
speeches can be used to impose certain moral or ethical values on people. The aim
of the study is to elucidate implicit statements in the language of politics seeing
that political speeches are not primarily prosperous because they are correct or
true, instead, it may be more dependent on how valid the arguments seem.
The purpose of this study is give to investigate, rhetorical strategies and the use
of stylistic devices such as metaphor, personification, epithet, rhetorical questions
and hyperbole in political speeches by president B. Obama.
The theoretical significance of this work discusses research undertaken into
variation based upon two different methodological approaches: firstly, focus upon
the linguistic variable; secondly, focus upon the social variable and social
networks.
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The practical importance of this work is to provide students with guidance and
advice on undertaking their own studies into variation and change, whilst section
The structure of the work. The course work consists of introduction, 2 chapters
with their own conclusions, overall conclusion of the work and the list of used
literature as well as internet resources.
Chapter 1 illustrates the analysis of the rhetorical persuasion will help to conceive
how these stylistic devices and rhetorical strategies help presidents to seize the
political power and position. Also, it is a valuable contribution to the teaching and
learning rhetoric and stylistics.
Chapter 2 is to express Charteris-Black studies Churchill’s rhetoric, especially
during World War II. Critical Metaphor Analysis, Charteris-Black’s methodology
for analyzing political rhetoric, involves three simple steps: identifying metaphors,
interpreting them, and then explaining them
In the concluding part of the work, the results and understandings obtained as a
result of the topic research are summarized. At the end of the work, the scientific
literature and internet resources related to the theme of the course work is given

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CHAPTER I. THE IMPORTANCE OF THE RHETORICAL DEVICES IN
POLITICAL SPEECH
1.1. The general information about rhetorical devices
According to Kennedy rhetoric is the ability to use language effectively. It is the
art of persuasion. For centuries rhetorical study was considered as a clincher of a
gentleman's education. Every individual, who wanted this communication to have
impact, had to study rhetoric. Rhetoric was considered as the cornerstone of
communication. Rhetoric could be used to make ideas clear and concise and to
make issues essential or important for people. Rhetoric concerns itself with
language and how people use it. The good rhetorician had to be proficient to
control arguments according to the rules of art of persuading (ibid). Kennedy states
that the English word "rhetoric", and its various forms in European languages, is
derived from the Greek word rhetör, a speaker in a public meeting or court of law,
sometimes equivalent to us might call a "politician". Before and after "rhetoric"
came into use there were other terms current. One was peithö, which means
"persuasion"; more common was use of the word logos, meaning word or speech,
in combination with other words: a démiourgos logön was a "worker of words",
and thus an orator;'' tekhné logon art of words" was used to describe the technique
or art of speech and became the common title for a handbook of public speaking
(ibid) defines political rhetoric as a device of government in the political system of
any society. Rhetoric contains the variety of cultural and linguistic expressions as a
part of the process of social communication. A good orator knows that words are a
powerful tool. The appropriate choice of words is similarly important as the
distribution of the purpose in the speech. In order to convince the people,
politicians try to select clear, accurate, descriptive and short words that best convey
ideas, as well as the words are arranged efficiently, coherent and correctly. Every
word contains value meaning and performance in their speeches. Indeed, rhetoric
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is not just empty words in political speeches. Rhetoric concerns itself with
language and how politicians use it (ibid) History of rhetoric. Rhetoric as a science
and an art last more than 3,000 years and gatheres almost all the sciences and the
arts. In ancient times, a good orator was considered as an educated man who was a
charismatic person, and without a doubt, was able to model voice and gestures as
an actor. The orator acquired knowledge of psychology, medicine, architecture,
history, literature, logic, and the most essentially law and philosophy. Yoos shows
that rhetorical strategies are the ways that writers and speakers use words and
language in order to persuade the audience. In other words, rhetorical strategies
help to find all methods that allow us to convey the most convincingly our point on
a given topic. These strategies help effectively, efficiently and coherently present
our material on a chosen subject also, to connect facts into a sequence, provide
clusters of information necessary for conveying a purpose or an argument.
Rhetoricians use sounds, objects and behaviors especially gestures as well as
words, to say what they would like to say. "Rhetoric is a much more
comprehensive art especially as one finds it going on in the art of negotiation in
politics that aims to bond and interact with others in shaping a community"(ibid).
According to Harris rhetorical devices can be distinguished into three categories:
first, involving emphasis, association, clarification, and focus (antithesis,
asyndeton, simile, etc.). Second involving physical organization, transition, and
disposition or arrangement. Third, involving decoration and variety (metaphor,
personification, etc.). He (ibid) claims that "sometimes a given device or trope fall
mainly into a Single category, but more often the effects of a particular device are
multiple, and a single one may operate in all three categories e.g. parallelism, helps
to order, clarify, emphasize and beautify a thought" (ibid). However, despite the
body language, an argumentation speech is a form of persuasive public speaking.
Argumentation can play an important role in presenting ideas and influencing
others. According to Collins English Dictionary, an argument is "a discussion in
which reasons are put forward in support of and against a proposition, proposal, or
case; debate". Argumentation is understood as evidence of any statement based on
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other statement of which the justice is already known. However, an argument is
attempt to persuade someone of something, by giving reasons or evidence for
accepting a particular conclusion. Fahnestock and Secor pointed out, that
"arguments addressed to favorably inclined audiences can have other practical
consequences aside from such immediate ones as creating enough votes for a new
community park or starting a letter campaign. They can also create group
cohesiveness, solidarity among those who find themselves agreeing with the
appeals cast at them. The person who articulates the reasons that hold the group
together may of course become its leader. But more important is the fact that the
argument that meets with agreement has created a human community ready to act
together" (ibid). Faircloug states that sometimes a third type of argumentation is
recognized, namely, conductive argument. He(ibid) says that "In conductive
arguments, the support pattern is said to be convergent and the premises are put
forward as separately or independently relevant to the claim. One difference is that
the "even-if" characteristic of conductive reasoning takes into account the
arguments on both sides of a disputed issue, the pro and contra'(ibid). According to
Crawford political argumentation can be classified into four ideal-type categories
that vary in terms of their content: practical/instrumental, ethical, scientific and
identity. She says that "in complex situations that demand complex arguments,
more than one, in some cases all these types of arguments may be deployed" (ibid).
The role of practical or instrumental argument is more to persuade rather to prove,
demonstrate or refuse. Crawford claims that "these arguments involve beliefs about
cause and effect relations among individuals; they are about how to do things in
the social world" (ibid ). Rhetoric and persuasion go together. Rhetoric may fail if
it is not persuasive. Actually, the measure of a successful rhetoric is its ability to
persuade. According to Frezza a good start of persuading is acknowledging the
prevalence of moral diversity, because each of us has different viewpoints of
life.Roberts Roberts points out that "Rhetoric may be defined as the faculty of
observing in any given case the available means of persuasion. This is a function
of any other art. Every other art can persuade about its own particular
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subjectmatter, for example, medicine about what is healthy and unhealthy,
geometry about the properties of magnitudes, arithmetic about numbers, and the
same is true of the other arts and sciences" (ibid) [3,56-58]. Speech is human
communication through spoken language. With reference to Oxford Advanced
Learners Dictionary, speech is "a formal talk that a person gives to an audience". It
is not easy to define the political speech. However, according to Rice a political
speech is "any oral presentation that sets forth a proposal of a political position,
particularly one in which the speaker hopes to influence others" (ibid). Stylistics is
concerned about different range of language styles and varieties which are feasible
in different spoken or written, formal or informal etc., texts. Similarly, the
scientists claim that "styles may be seen as characteristic of an author, of a period
of a particular kind of persuasion (rhetoric) or a genre". Nowadays, stylistics is
considered as the modern version of the ancient discipline known as 'rhetoric'
which taught students how to structure the argument, how to make effective use of
figures of speech and how to create a speech in a way which can have an absolute
influence on listeners or readers However, the possibility of stylistics for taking
insights from other disciplines means that it is a subject that is always expanding
and developing. While it is true to say, that "stylistics is neither theoretically nor in
practice limited to study the language of literature". Functional stylistics analyzes
functional styles and their possible use in communicative situation. The fact of the
matter is that there exist a number of classifications of functional styles, but the
most common one was introduced by Galperin. So, he distinguishes five groups of
functional styles: official style [7,89-90].
1. scientific (academic publications).
2. 3.publicist (public speeches, essays). newspaper (articles printed in
newspapers).
4. 5.belles-letters style (emotive prose, poetry, drama speech and how to create a
speech in a way which can have an absolute influence on listeners or readers.
Therefore, the possibility of stylistics for taking insights from other disciplines
means that it is a subject that is always expanding and developing. While it is true
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to say, that "stylistics is neither theoretically nor in practice limited to study the
language of literature" . They claim, that "there are many outside the field who
consider stylistics and literary stylistics to be identical". That is to say, "speeches,
love letters, gas bills, committee minutes etc. can be analyzed for their stylistic
features in just the same way as poems, plays and novels" ( ibid). Metaphors are
one of the most frequently used stylistic devices. The purpose of using metaphors
is to create a vivid picture in the audience's mind and to arouse imagination for
example "She has a heart of stone" or "We are all shadows on the wall of time".
Rhetoricians or poets use metaphors in an imaginative way to show that the two
things have the same qualities and to make the speech more persuasive and more
powerful. With reference. Galperin says that "the epithet is a stylistic device based
on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive and logical
meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even syntactically used to characterize an
object and pointing out to the reader, and frequently imposing on him, some of the
properties or features of the object with the aim of giving an individual perception
an evaluation of these features or properties" (ibid). Hyperbole Hyperbole is a
figure of speech when the speaker exaggerates and overemphasizes some words or
phrases in order to produce more noticeable effect or to stress a specific point of
the speech. The word 'hyperbole' has its origin in the Greek language and means
exaggeration. Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary defines hyperbole as "a way
of speaking or writing that makes the sound better, more exiting, dangerous, than it
really is". Also, hyperbole can be expressed by all notional parts of speech as all,
every, everybody; numerical nouns a million, a thousand, adverbs of time ever,
never". Rhetorical question Rhetorical devices and literary techniques are closely
connected to tone and style. Rhetorical question is defined as any question which
not intended to be answered. So, it is normally used for rhetorical effect with a
presumption that only one answer is possible or it is asked without needing or
intending to be answered. According to Galperin "the rhetorical question is a
special syntactic stylistic device the essence of which consists in reshaping the
grammatical meaning of the interrogative sentence" (ibid). Similarly, Nozan claims
10

that "rhetorical questions are infelicitous or false questions in that the answer to the
question is already known to the questioner and a rhetorical question may or may
not have the illocutionary force of questioning but often bear the force of an
indirect assertion."( ibid). Furthermore, Han says ' 'a rhetorical positive question
has the illocutionary force of negative assertion, and a rhetorical negative question
has the illocutionary force of a positive assertion" (ibid). There are different kinds
of rhetorical questions. According to Athanasiadou using rhetorical questions is the
intention of the speaker is to give emphasis to some particular point. Moreover, in
a rhetorical question, the speaker considers the propositional content he/she is
going to utter to be trivial or well-known. In a rhetorical question a constituent is
given emphatic prominence and gets a universally valid touch and finally,
rhetorical questions express wonder in an exclamative way. Obviously, one of the
greatest linguistic tools of political persuasion is the metaphor. It is popular to
believe that the President of the United States Barack Obama delivers emotional
speeches, full of stylistic devices. However, by putting ideas into metaphors the
President presents himself as a strong leader who is responsible for his country.
Thus, B. Obama masterly uses metaphorical phrases in order to gain people's
attention. The length of the speeches performed by B. Obama is enormous.
However, the speeches make people want to listen, because they create a situation
in which people feel that they are in the presence of a great political leader [4,100].
That's where peace begins not just in the plans of leaders, but in the hearts of
people.
The stylistic device supports the President's wish that people all around the world
live peacefully and secure liberty across the globe. He metaphorically claims that
the values of freedom, heritage and principles depend on people's internal value.
By studying language in circumstances where all its functions and variations are
taken into consideration, it is possible to learn more about how perceptions,
convictions and identities are influenced by language. In political speeches during
election campaigns, ideas and ideologies need be conveyed through language so
that they are agreed upon by the receivers as well as by others who may read or
11

hear parts of the speech afterwards in the media. Words and expressions are used
or omitted to affect meaning in different ways. Moreover, political speeches are
composed by a team of professional speech writers, who are educated in the use of
persuasive language. Adding rhetorical devices to a pre-composed speech may be
of crucial importance to election results.
1.2. Politicians and rhetoric
Charteris-Black argues that successful speakers, especially in political contexts,
need to appeal to attitudes and emotions that are already within the listeners.When
the listeners perceive that their beliefs are understood and supported, the speaker
has created connections to the policy that they wish to communicate. When putting
forward arguments a speaker has to communicate at an emotional level and take
standpoints that seem morally correct. Furthermore, the listener must perceive that
the arguments are relevant for the issue. This cannot be done solely by lexical
means although linguistic performance is the most important factor. According to
Charteris-Black, the effect of rhetorical strategies in political speeches is often a
result of them being combined. Therefore, it is as interesting to look at the
interaction of various strategies as it is to look at each one separately. Jones and
Wareing argue that the ability to convey the message that speaker and listener want
the same thing plays a decisive role in the process of establishing an ideology. To
achieve a sense of congruence between audience and speaker, politicians often
make use of symbols to foster national unity. Political rhetoric, synonymously
referred to as ‘spin’, is popularly thought of with exasperation. Wooing us against
our best interests, the deliberate intent to mislead and manipulate can be artfully
masked by slick politicians. While skilful rhetoricians can spin the body politic
astray with disastrous consequences (think Hitler or the second Gulf War), they
can also inspire and motivate for a common good. In essence, rhetoric, especially
through the use of metaphor, is the means politicians use to persuade an audience.
Through the application of critical metaphor analysis to the corpuses of major
British and American leaders, Jonathan Charteris-Black, author of Politicians and
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Rhetoric: The Persuasive Power of Metaphor, explores the systematic employment
of metaphors; their interaction with other rhetorical tools in heightening conceptual
associations and their use in creating political myth that appeals to fundamental
and relatable life experiences. Metaphors are powerful vehicles of persuasion
[9,34-39]. Used as a bridge between the familiar and the literal, they transfer
meaning from what is easily understood to more complex concepts that are harder
to grasp. By establishing ethical credentials, shaping and communicating political
arguments around the recognizable, heightening emotive responses and, above all,
creating potent political myths, the careful and attentive use of metaphor is a
valuable weapon in the arsenal of any politician. In terms of myth-making,
metaphor provides the link between the unconsciously implicit understandings of
people (be it historical, cultural, physical, etc.) and the explicit ideology and
policies of a politician. Herein, the author maintains, is the real strength of
metaphorical association. Charteris-Black’s main argument is that the creation of
political myth, or ‘telling the right story’, is particularly effective in persuasion:
‘By drawing on deeply rooted cultural schemata politicians are able to represent
their beliefs and their policies as heroic tasks and themselves as epic heroes.’
Likewise, they are able to demonize their enemies and depict opposing policies as
villainous. Moreover, complex and nuanced political platforms can be
communicated simply and effectively using metaphoric association and myth.
Through analyzing the corpuses of the chosen leaders, readers are provided insight
into the vital role metaphor and political myth play in persuasion. The distinct
rhetorical style of each leader is adeptly, and at times entertainingly, pointed out.
Additionally, the reader is shown how their ‘spin’ is intentionally manufactured
and employed with calculating proficiency. In this second edition of Charteris-
Black’s book, Barack Obama, Enoch Powell and Ronald Reagan are the added
features on a list of accomplished rhetoricians comprised of Winston Churchill,
Martin Luther King, Margaret Thatcher, Bill Clinton, Tony Blair and George W.
Bush. King eloquently utilized biblical and journey metaphors in creating a
messianic political myth whereby he was a modern-day Moses guiding African-
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Americans towards salvation. Powell’s political myth exploited powerful
emotions, chief among them fear, by consistently decrying ‘waves’ of immigrants
and prophesising the ‘swamping’ of Britain with foreigners. Reagan, ‘The Great
Communicator’, often resorted to space metaphors in depicting a cosmic battle of
good versus evil and America’s ascendant journey through time [5,12-18]. He
continually characterized the Soviet Union as the ‘Evil Empire’ that needed to be
defended against with ‘Star Wars’ weaponry (all the while actively financing and
arming the repressive and authoritarian Central American regimes). Thatcher, the
‘Iron Lady’, effectively polarized the British electorate by continually associating
Labour policies with Socialism and death. Interestingly, her epithetic nickname,
originally meant to denote her rigidity and heartlessness, was positively spun to
illustrate her conviction. Bush, although not known for his intellectual capacities or
handle of the English language, successfully used financial metaphors to create an
effective myth of moral accounting whereby terrorists and ‘the axis of evil’ owed a
moral debt that had to be exacted down to the last penny by America. Obama, the
‘American dream’ personified, embodied the political myth of hope and projected
a sense of unity and optimism that was incredibly persuasive. Above all, this book
will interest those fascinated with linguistics, rhetoric and political communication.
It can also serve as a guide for those wary of political ‘spin’ who want to develop
critical skills in discerning ethical integrity from nefarious intention. The book
provides lucid insight into the way metaphors and political myths are developed by
politicians seeking to achieve an intended effect. The artful use of language,
Charteris-Black shows, can be incredibly persuasive. Which types of political
rhetoric are most persuasive? Politicians make arguments that share common
rhetorical elements, including metaphor, ad hominem attacks, appeals to expertise,
moral appeals, and many others. However, political arguments are also highly
multidimensional, making it dicult to assess the relative persuasive power of these
elements. We report on a novel experimental design which assesses the relative
persuasiveness of a large number of arguments that deploy a set of rhetorical
elements to argue for and against proposals across a range of UK political issues.
14

We find modest differences in the average eectiveness of rhetorical elements
shared by many arguments, but also large variation in the persuasiveness of
arguments of the same rhetorical type across issues. In addition to revealing that
some argument-types are more eective than others in shaping public opinion, these
results have important implications for the interpretation of survey-experimental
studies in the field of political communication [6,44-48].
Conclusion on chapter I
The aim of this study was to examine and expose implicit statements in the
language of politics and to point out examples of linguistic strategies that impose
moral or ethical values on people. Chapter one consisted of an introduction where
the topic language influences of political speeches was briefly described. The
second chapter presented an overview of the rhetorical strategies that were studied
in the essay. The strategies that were analyzed were metaphors, metonymies,
analogies, pronouns, the active or passive voice of transitive verbs, sound-bites,
three-part lists and contrastive pairs. The presentation exposed an emphasis on
strategic use of metaphors, pronouns, three-part lists and contrastive pairs in both
speeches and a scarcity of metonymies and the passive voice of transitive verbs.
The analysis revealed some implicit statements that, it could be argued, impose
certain moral values on the audience. The conclusion to be drawn from this study
is that linguistic divergences between how different speakers present their
arguments and their views are possible to discern. These differences reveal
attitudes of various kinds, such as what more precisely are their priorities as far as
war is concerned. To summarize, being aware of how politicians use rhetorical
strategies in order to convince an audience of the rectitude of war is of high
importance. These views are never argued openly although conveyed as a basis for
justifying each speaker's arguments for or against the war in Iraq compared to the
war against terrorism. The results of this study conduced to achieve the aims of the
study, which were to examine what rhetorical strategies and stylistic devices
15

President Barack Obama use in his political speeches and how these devices help
him to gain audience's attention and render the message. The analysis of
President's speeches showed that President through stylistic means transmit a
valuable information and express their vision of the political situation. Thus, from
the results it became evident that the President uses tactical manipulation of
rhetoric to obtain the target aims, still B. Obama employs more stylistic means in
his speeches. In the course of analysis it became evident that metaphors are the
most prominent stylistic device in the President's remarks. It is obvious that
President employs metaphorical language in his speeches because metaphors have
a huge influence on people and help him to gain votes. However, the President
uses them to strengthen his arguments differently. Through metaphorical language
B. Obama appeals to logos (logic) that means B. Obama appeals to the audience's
mind when he emphasizes economic and educational issues in the country.
Rhetoric especially pathos causes people to feel sympathy. That is why B. Obama
through epithets shows his thoughts based upon pathos (emotions). Epithets relieve
the President to characterize the people and describe places or things. The way of
seeing situation, B. Obama transfers through rhetorical questions. Political
message delivered here is more grounded pathos (emotions ). The analysis
revealed that B. Obama's often expresses his personal touch with the people. By
asking rhetorically he stresses the issues like storm that stroke the country and at
the same time bringing the people to selfreflection. Furthermore, in order to stir the
audience's emotions the president uses pathos (emotions). Through the use of
hyperbole both Presidents emphasize the significant issues of the countries like
conflicts in the world, importance of cooperation and significance of the military
service. As well as that the President supports arguments proficiently according to
the rules of persuading. The topic of political rhetoric concerns the strategies used
to construct persuasive arguments in political debate. The study of political
rhetoric therefore spans a range of academic disciplines and touches upon the
fundamental activities of democratic politics. This chapter starts out by briefly
reviewing recent academic work on changing styles of political communication
16

and on the rhetorical strategies used in debates on emergent political issues. It then
turns to focus on two conceptual issues of particular significance to political
psychology. First, the chapter considers how a study of argumentation may
enhance our understanding of political attitudes and cognition. Second, it considers
how a study of the processes by which identities are claimed, displayed, and
attributed in the course of political debate may enhance our appreciation of the role
of ambivalence and vagueness in democratic political life.
CHAPTER II. THE TYPES AND VALUE OF THE RHETORICAL
DEVICES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
2.1. The data on metaphora as a rhetorical device
Rhetorical devices are often used to persuade audiences. Basic rhetorical devices
include metaphors, alliteration, anaphora, euphemistic language, polysyndeton,
procatalepsis, rhetorical questions, and hypophora. Rhetoric is a communication
style that is typically used to persuade or influence audiences. It is most often in
spoken or written form and is commonly used by media outlets and political
figures to shape public opinion. Although rhetorical language is often viewed as
insincere or manipulative, it is often used as a literary device to emphasize certain
themes, ideas, or emotions in narrative works. Broadly speaking, rhetoric can be
defined as the art of explanation or effective communication. There are several
specific rhetorical devices or techniques that are used to reach audiences. What are
rhetorical techniques? A rhetorical techniques definition is that they linguistic
techniques commonly used to persuade people into thinking that an idea or
position is more favorable or appealing than it otherwise would be. Rhetorical
language is often contrasted with dialectic language. Rhetoric is often sensational
and used to appeal to one's emotions, while dialectic communication appeals to
logic, reason, or reality. Rhetorical devices often involve repetition of sounds,
words, and phrases to communicate with people. There are a variety of rhetorical
devices that are commonly used in discourse. These devices can be found in
literature, news reports, public speaking events, and product advertisements. Part
17

of understanding how these rhetorical devices influence people is being able to
spot them when they are used. Let's begin with a common literary device with
which most people are familiar. The lesson will cover metaphors,
alliteration, anaphora , euphemistic language, polysyndeton, procatalepsis,
rhetorical questions, and hypophora. The main purpose of a metaphor is to draw
attention to certain qualities of the objects being associated through the figure of
speech [8,20-28]. For example, the Bible identifies Jesus as the Lion of Judah; this
calls attention to a certain ferocity in the figure of Jesus that may otherwise go
unnoticed. A metaphor is different from a simile in that whereas a simile uses the
transition "like" or "as", the metaphor just directly links the two objects in
question. A metaphor is a literary device comparing to unlike things through a
perceived similarity. Metaphor, unlike simile, does not use the words “like” or “as”
to make a comparison for rhetorical effect. Metaphor uses implicit, implied, or
hidden comparison to draw out the resemblance of two contradictory objects or
concepts. In the English language, metaphor is when a person, place, or thing is
described as being another person, place, or thing. Metaphor is derived from the
Middle English methaphor, and the Latin metaphora which is from the Greek
metapherein meaning “to transfer” or “to bear.” Its first known use was in the 15th
century. Metaphor uses an analogy to compare two things that appear to be very
unlike each other. The following examples demonstrate the usage of metaphor in
literature [10,78-79].
 “It is raining cats and dogs.”
 “The noise of toddlers was music to her ears.”
From Enid Bagnold’s National Velvet:
“The rain came down in long knitting needles.”
From Austin O’Malley’s Keystones of Thought:
“Memory is a crazy woman that hoards colored rags and throws away food.”
From Peckham’s Marbles by Peter De Vries:
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“For we are all swimmers ephemerally buoyed by what will engulf us at the last;
still dreaming of islands though the mainland has been lost; swept remorselessly
out to sea while we spread our arms to the beautiful shore.”
Pablo Picasso used a metaphor when he stated, “Art washes away from the soul the
dust of everyday life.”
Albert Einstein (who used lots of metaphors in his scientific theories ) did likewise
with the following quote:
“All religions, arts, and sciences are branches of the same tree.”
Other uses in literature
Musicians often use metaphor in song lyrics, to which it is particularly suited
because it can shorten ideas, expressions, and make points succinct without
removing the poetry of song lyrics.
Bob Dylan sang that “Chaos is a friend of mine,” and Tom Cochrane that “Life is a
highway.” Elvis Presley’s song “Hound Dog” is metaphorical, as well: “You ain’t
nothin’ but a hound dog/Cryin’ all the time.” Lonestar’s “I’m Already There”
contains the following lyrics which a father sings to his children:
“I’m the sunshine in your hair
I’m the shadow on the ground
I’m the whisper in the wind
I’m your imaginary friend.”
Maroon 5’s song “My Heart’s a Stereo” contains the following metaphor:
“My heart’s a stereo
It beats for your so listen close
Hear my thoughts in every note
Make me your radio
And turn me up when you feel low
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This melody was meant for you
Just sing along to my stereo.”
Conventional metaphors abound in the English language in particular. Here are
some commonly used metaphors.
 “She was so angry that steam was emanating from the top of her head.”
 “The examination was a breeze.”
 “The stars were diamonds in the summer night sky.”
Using metaphors in literature and speech appeals to the senses in a way that
straightforward language does not. Metaphor asks the listener or reader to use their
imaginations to conjure up connections between unlike things, as well as asks the
writer or speaker to create those same connections through their arts. If you use our
essay or dissertation writing services, you know our writers are ready to use
metaphors upon request. A metaphor is a figure of speech that implicitly compares
two unrelated things, typically by stating that one thing is another (e.g., “that chef
is a magician”). Metaphors can be used to create vivid imagery, exaggerate a
characteristic or action, or express a complex idea. Metaphors are commonly used
in literature, advertising, and everyday speech. A metaphor is a rhetorical device
that makes a non-literal comparison between two unlike things. Metaphors are
used to describe an object or action by stating (or implying) that it is something
else (e.g., “knowledge is a butterfly”).
Metaphors typically have two parts:
 A tenor is the thing or idea that the metaphor describes (e.g., “knowledge”).
 A vehicle is the thing or idea used to describe the tenor (e.g., “a butterfly”).
Types of metaphor
There are several different types of metaphor.
Direct metaphor
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A direct metaphor compares two unrelated things by explicitly stating that one
thing is another. Direct metaphors typically use a form of the verb “be” to connect
two things.
Examples: Direct metaphorsCharlie was a saint!
Ami and Vera are two peas in a pod.
A book is a passport to another world [12,90-98].
Implied metaphor
An implied metaphor compares two unlike things without explicitly naming one
of them. Instead, a comparison is typically made using a non-literal verb. For
example, the statement “the man erupted in anger” uses the verb “erupted” to
compare a man to a volcano.
Examples: Implied metaphorsHer smile lit up the room. [i.e., her smile was as
bright as the sun]
The captain barked orders at the soldiers. [i.e., the captain was like an angry dog]
The politician cut down his opponent with his speech. [i.e., the politician’s words
were like daggers]
Extended metaphor
An extended metaphor (also called a sustained metaphor) occurs when an initial
comparison is developed or sustained over several lines or paragraphs (or stanzas,
in the case of a poem).
Extended metaphors are commonly used in literature and advertising, but they’re
rarely used in everyday speech.
Example: Extended metaphor in William Shakespeare’s As You Like It All the
world’s a stage,
And all the men and women merely players.
They have their exits and their entrances,
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And one man in his time plays many parts,
His acts being seven ages.
Mixed metaphor
A mixed metaphor is a figure of speech that combines two or more metaphors,
resulting in a confusing or nonsensical statement.
Mixed metaphors are usually accidental and are often perceived as unintentionally
humorous. Mixing metaphors can confuse your readers and make your writing
seem to lack coherence.
Examples: Mixed metaphorsPut your ducks in a row and don’t count them before
they hatch.
She’s a rising star, and with the right guidance, she’ll spread her wings.
Life is a rollercoaster—you need to take it one step at a time.
Dead metaphor
A dead metaphor is a figure of speech that has become so familiar due to repeated
use that people no longer recognize it as a metaphor. Instead, it’s understood as
having a straightforward meaning.
Examples: Dead metaphorsThere is a small village at the foot of the mountain .
The guest of honor sat at the head of the table .
On the last leg of the journey , the travelers encountered several obstacles.
Metaphor vs. simile
Metaphors and similes are both rhetorical devices used for comparison. However,
they have different functions:
 A metaphor makes an implicit comparison between two unlike things,
usually by saying that one thing is another thing (e.g., “my body is a
temple”).
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 A simile makes an explicit comparison between two unlike things, typically
using the words “like,” “as,” or “than” (e.g., “you’re as stubborn as a
mule”).
Examples: SimilesThe storm raged like an angry beast .
The old man’s beard was as white as snow .
The athlete’s will was stronger than iron .
Metaphor vs. analogy
There are two main types of analogy:
 Identical relationship analogies indicate the logical relationship between
two things (e.g., “‘Up’ is to ‘down’ as ‘on’ is to ‘off’”).
 Shared abstraction analogies compare two unlike things to illustrate a
point.
Metaphors are sometimes confused with shared abstraction analogies, but they
serve different purposes. While metaphors are primarily used to make a
comparison (e.g., “John is a caveman”), shared abstraction analogies are used to
make an argument or explain something.
Examples: Shared abstraction analogiesFriendship is like a garden; it requires care
and nourishment.
Time is like a river; you cannot stop it from flowing.
Allegory vs. metaphor
Metaphors are sometimes confused with allegories, but they have different
functions:
 A metaphor makes an implied comparison between two unlike things,
typically by stating that one thing is another (e.g., “time is money”).
 An allegory illustrates abstract concepts, moral principles, or complex ideas
through symbolic representation.
23

Allegories are typically longer than metaphors and usually take the form of a story.
Example: AllegoryIn the kingdom of Harmony, two trees, Pride and Humility,
competed to touch the sky. Pride, boastful and tall, looked down on others.
Humility, despite being shorter, embraced all. A storm ravaged the land, toppling
Pride, while Humility stood firm, its branches sheltering those in need [11,60-68].

2.2. The using of the rhetorical devices in speech.
A rhetorical device is a linguistic tool that evokes a specific kind of understanding
in a reader or listener. Generally, rhetorical devices are used to make arguments or
bolster existing arguments. To understand rhetorical devices, you need to first
understand rhetoric . Rhetoric is language that’s used to connect with audiences and
inform, motivate, or persuade them. Rhetoric comes in four categories:
 Logos : Language that appeals to logic and reasoning.
 Pathos : Language that appeals to emotion.
 Ethos : Language that bases its credibility in its speaker’s authority.
 Kairos: Language that communicates the timeliness of its speaker’s position.
Rhetorical devices are the strategies used to communicate rhetoric to an audience.
In essence, they’re the how of how rhetoric works. Rhetorical devices can
incorporate any of the four forms of rhetoric and, in some cases, more than one.
December is the best time of year to buy a car because salespeople are trying to
meet their annual sales goals. Thus, they are more willing to negotiate with buyers
and offer discounts [15,67-69]. This example uses both logos and kairos to push
the reader to buy a new car in December.
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Additionally, rhetorical questions are a type of rhetorical device that aim to create
an effect rather than elicit a response or answer.
What’s the purpose of a rhetorical device?
The purpose of a rhetorical device is to influence how an audience understands and
engages with the material. It could be to connect with the reader emotionally and
push them to empathize with a particular position, or to connect with their logical
mind and demonstrate why a specific position is well crafted. In writing, rhetorical
devices are used to achieve one or more of the following:
 Help explain your position
 Challenge an existing point of view
 Elicit a strong reaction
 Make an emotional connection
Because rhetorical devices speak directly to the reader, they are often used in
pieces of writing like personal essays, argumentative and persuasive essays, blog
posts, speeches, opinion pieces, and social media posts. In fiction, rhetorical
devices can be part of dialogue to show readers a character’s thoughts and
perspective. Avoid using rhetorical devices in pieces of academic writing like
research papers and analytical essays. Similarly, avoid them in professional
communication. These types of writing require a detached, professional tone, and
rhetorical devices can often undermine this kind of tone. Do not allow rhetorical
devices to stand in for well-researched, well-supported arguments in your writing.
When a writer does this, they often venture into logical fallacy territory. As you
outline and write, make sure every argument you present is logically supported by
credible evidence, and once you have a clear, coherently structured piece, you can
work in rhetorical devices to amplify your message. Although rhetorical devices
take many different forms, they’re grouped by their similarities. These
characteristic elements include:
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 Simplicity. Often, rhetorical devices are used to make complex subjects
more accessible.
 Poetic language. While rhetorical devices don’t necessarily need to rhyme or
stick to a meter, they often incorporate poetic elements like rhythm and
imagery.
 Provocation. The purpose of a rhetorical device is to elicit a response in the
reader or listener. Every rhetorical device aims to do this.
Rhetorical device vs. literary device
Rhetorical devices have a lot in common with literary devices . In fact, many
literary devices can also be used as rhetorical devices. For example, as a literary
device, metaphor is writing that’s literally about one subject, but figuratively about
another. A poem about expiring food in a refrigerator could be a metaphor about
the importance of maintaining friendships. The metaphor is the substituted subject
—in this example, the expiring food is a metaphor for friendships that haven’t been
kept up. Literary devices can be an effective way to communicate themes in
writing because they illustrate the themes, rather than simply stating them.
Rhetorical devices work the same way. By employing a rhetorical device in your
writing, you can guide the reader to understand its themes without feeling like
you’re making them too obvious or presenting them in an overly didactic way.
Rhetorical and literary devices are executed the same way—they’re woven into a
piece of writing to make the piece more vivid, with the goal of connecting with the
reader in a way that effectively communicates its themes. The goal, however,
varies slightly. While a literary device serves to simply underscore a piece’s
themes, rhetorical devices aim to guide the reader to perceive the writing a certain
way. This could be to empathize with the author, trust the author, understand an
issue from a new perspective, or to challenge their previous beliefs about the
writing’s subject. Like literary devices, some rhetorical devices are used on the
sentence level, while others operate as the “big picture” in the writing. Similarly,
some play with words’ sounds, creating rhythm and texture. Rhetorical devices
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that don’t involve sounds, like satire and metaphor, can be just as effective in
writing as in speech.
Here are some of the most commonly used devices:
1. Anaphora : Repetition used to create a rhythmic effect, typically used for
emphasis.
2. Chiasmus : A device in which words, grammatical constructions, or concepts
are repeated in reverse order to deepen an idea or create a memorable
rhythm.
3. Climax: Gradually building intensity in subsequent sentences for dramatic
effect.
4. Connotation : The sense or image a word evokes, used strategically to
influence readers or listeners.
5. Epithet: The use of a nickname to describe somebody.
6. Hyperbole : Exaggerated statements or claims meant to grab attention, not to
be taken literally.
7. Litotes : An understatement that states a positive attribute as an inverse of its
opposite, often for ironic effect.
8. Meiosis : A euphemistic understatement meant to belittle or reduce its
subject.
9. Paradox : A statement that, while contradictory, makes logical sense.
10. Parallelism : The use of grammatically similar sentences together to create
emphasis.
11. Personification : The attribution of humanlike characteristics to an animal or
object.
12. Satire : The use of irony or exaggeration to create a humorous, critical effect.
13. Synecdoche : Using a part of something to refer to it as a whole.
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Rhetorical device examples
“But in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow
this ground.” —Abraham Lincoln, “The Gettysburg Address” ( Anaphora )
“If growing up is painful for the South Black girl, being aware of her displacement
is the rust on the razor that threatens the throat. It is an unnecessary insult.” —
Maya Angelou, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings ( Personification )
Fool me once, shame on you. Fool me twice, shame on me. ( Parallelism )
“Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.” —Shakespeare, Julius
Caesar ( Synecdoche )
It’s not rocket science. ( Litotes )
“I can resist anything but temptation.” —Oscar Wilde ( Paradox )
A penny saved is a penny earned. ( Aphorism )
“Despised, if ugly; if she’s fair, betrayed.” —Mary Leapor ( Chiasmus )
It was a million degrees outside . ( Hyperbole )
A rhetorical device is a linguistic tool that’s meant to evoke a specific kind of
understanding in the reader or, in the case of spoken language, the listener.
Generally, they are used to make arguments or bolster existing arguments [18,100-
108].
What are the elements of a rhetorical device?
 Simplicity: Rhetorical devices are often used to make complex subjects
more accessible.
 Poetic language: Rhetorical devices often incorporate poetic elements like
rhythm and imagery.
 Provocation: The purpose of a rhetorical device is to elicit a response in the
reader or listener.
What are the different kinds of rhetorical device?
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A few examples of rhetorical device include:
 Anaphora
 Hyperbole
 Litotes
 Personification
 Satire

Conclusion on chapter II
We have described a new experimental design and modelling strategy for testing
the relative persuasiveness of different types of political arguments. Basing our
design on the types of rhetoric that are regularly found in real-world political
speeches in the UK, we implemented an experiment using 336 individual
arguments pertaining to 14 rhetorical elements across 12 policy issues. Combining
a Bradley-Terry style model with a series of hierarchical models, we have
demonstrated that there are differences in the persuasive power of different
rhetorical elements, with “appeals to authority” among the strongest types we test,
and “ad hominem” and “metaphor” among the weakest. However, we also
demonstrated that there is significant heterogeneity in argument strength within
element types, implying external validity concerns for existing studies that rely on
single implementations of latent treatments in texts. These empirical findings
29

reinforce the methodological point that researchers should more generally use
designs based on pooling evidence from many small implementations rather than
few large ones. Astute readers will note that, in making this point about the
external validity of other studies, we are arguably guilty of the same kind of
extrapolation that we are cautioning against, one from a domain-specific
demonstration to a far more general claim. In a narrow sense, we have
demonstrated that arguments of the types frequently used in the UK 29 Parliament
vary widely in their ability to persuade UK citizens, across a set of medium
salience UK political issues. Does this translate to other kinds of survey
experiments that political scientists use to assess theories of public opinion and
political psychology? We cannot clearly demonstrate that it does. Nonetheless, we
think that our empirical results usefully demonstrate a general theoretical concern,
which clearly applies as a concern across a wide range of studies. It may be the
case that some experimental domains do not exhibit this level of implementation-
level heterogeneity, for various reasons. But at the very least, a very strong
theoretical argument ought to be expected when researchers move from their
specific experiment to more general claims about an underlying phenomenon.
Better than such an argument though, would be more widespread use of the core
approach of this paper: conducting a larger number of smaller experiments, and
using multilevel models to characterise the distribution of results. As Grimmer and
Fong note, the confounding issues that motivate our design are not a concern for
A/B testing where researchers are interested in evaluating responses to two or more
specific texts. However, our approach is appropriate wherever the purpose of an
experiment is to illustrate a more general phenomenon, rather than to study the
specific treatment(s) being applied. There are several dimensions on which our
study is limited in scope, many of which suggest avenues for future research. First,
we use written texts to implement a set of rhetorical elements, but rhetorical skill
may manifest differently in spoken and written forms. It is plausible that the
ordering of elements that we describe would change if we used videos of
politicians speaking rather than texts of their speeches as the basis of our
30

experiment. Ad hominem attacks may, for example, seem more persuasive when
delivered aloud than when read on the page. In addition, using video treatments
would also mean that we could assess a wider variety of rhetorical elements, such
as the emotional intensity with which arguments are conveyed, which are difficult
to capture 30 adequately in written form. Second, we focus on a set of moderate
salience issues in UK politics, but one might imagine that some of our elements
would be more or less persuasive on a different set of issues. For example, we
might expect arguments that employ expert endorsements or cost/benefit analyses
to be less persuasive on issues where respondents already have strongly-held
views. Finally, our estimates reflect the effects of only short-run exposure to
different types of rhetoric. An interesting further development of the findings we
present here would be to embed our experimental design in a panel study, which
would allow researchers to evaluate how persuasion effects vary as voters are
exposed to rhetorical strategies over a longer period of time. We leave these
endeavours for future work.

CONCLUSION
One of the essential properties of the 21st century English neologisms is that the
vast majority of them are generated and triggered by the Internet, a powerful
indicator and resonator of the new vocabulary. The advent of the Internet had a
strong impact on the nature, patterns and causes of coining new words in the
English language. This paper was aimed at exploring the role of language play as a
linguistic tool of expanding the vocabulary of present-day English. The corpus of
neologisms compiled on the Internet new word resource sites revealed that
language play as a linguistic cause of coining new word forms or new meanings
was observed on graphical, phonetic, morphological, lexical (semantic),
derivational and stylistic levels of the lexical system, derivational (or word-
building) level being most representative of language play techniques instrumental
31

in coining creative formations. Play on words as a variation of language play on a
stylistic level proved an effective technique to replenish the new vocabulary with
expressive words. The survival of these new coinages will depend on pragmatic,
communicative, emotive or nominative needs of the language users. The relevance
of language play could be determined by the psychology of human perception: the
most unusual appeals more and sustains longer. In this article we consider
language play as a linguistic tool for enriching the English vocabulary for the
purpose of meeting nominating challenges as well as communicative or emotive
needs of language users. Therefore, we view the lexical items of our corpus with
reference to the ways of deviating from its phonetic and graphical form, of
manipulating with morphological structure and derivational patterns of word
formation as well as of violating the collocability of lexical items etc. For this
purpose, we introduce the concept of ludic technique, or ludeme as a unit of
analysis and taxonomy of language play techniques. The research questions posed
in this study are the following: a) What are the mechanisms and models of
language play instrumental in coining lexical novelties? b) In which types of
discourse (personal or institutional/socialized) new word forms and meanings or
both are generated?

32

THE LIST OF USED LITERATURE
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noble people . Tashkent.: Uzbekistan. – 2017.
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State of Uzbekistan . Tashkent.: Uzbekistan. – 2017.
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Clearly and Concisely,”.
4. Crystal, D., How Language Works: How Babies Babble, Words Change
Meaning, and Languages Live or Die (Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press,
2005), 155.
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5. Dindia, K., “The Effect of Sex of Subject and Sex of Partner on
edInterruptions,” Human Communication Research 13, no. 3 (1987): 345–
71.
6. Dindia, K. and Mike Allen, “Sex Differences in Self-Disclosure: A Meta
Analysis,” Psychological Bulletin 112, no. 1 (1992): 106–24.
7. Exploring Constitutional Conflicts , “Regulation of Fighting Words and Hate
Speech,”.
8. Giles, H., Donald M. Taylor, and Richard Bourhis, “Toward a Theory of
Interpersonal Accommodation through Language: Some Canadian
Data,” Language and Society 2, no. 2 (1973): 177–92.
9. Kwintessential Limited , “Results of Poor Cross Cultural Awareness,”
accessed June 7.
10. Lustig, M. W. and Jolene Koester, Intercultural Competence: Interpersonal
Communication across Cultures , 2nd ed. (Boston, MA: Pearson, 2006), 199–
200.
11. Martin, J. N. and Thomas K. Nakayama, Intercultural Communication in
Contexts , 5th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010), 222–24.
12. McCornack, S., Reflect and Relate: An Introduction to Interpersonal
Communication (Boston, MA: Bedford/St Martin’s, 2007), 224–25.
13. Nadeem, S., “Accent Neutralisation and a Crisis of Identity in India’s Call
Centres,” The Guardian , February 9, 2011,.
14. Palo.A. “Indian by Day, American by Night,” The Progressive , August
2004.
15. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 6th ed.
(Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2010), 71–76.
16. Willam Adams Southern Poverty Law Center , “Hate Map,”.
17. Varma, S., “Arbitrary? 92% of All Injuries Termed Minor,” The Times of
India , June 20, 2010, accessed June 7.
18. Waltman, M. and John Haas, The Communication of Hate (New York, NY:
Peter Lang Publishing, 2011), 33.
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19. Wetzel, P. J., “Are ‘Powerless’ Communication Strategies the Japanese
Norm?” Language in Society 17, no. 4 (1988): 555–64.
20. Wierzbicka, A., “The English Expressions Good Boy and Good Girl and
Cultural Models of Child Rearing,” Culture and Psychology 10, no. 3
(2004): 251–78.

INTERNET RESOURCES
1. wikipedia.org
2. www.britannica.com

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The usage of rhetorical devices in political speeches

Sotib olish