Dialect words in English
![3INTRODUCTION
English is known for its vast vocabulary, which has been enriched by various
dialects and regional languages throughout its history. Dialect words in English refer
to the words or phrases specific to a particular region or community within a larger
English-speaking population. These unique expressions not only add variety and
diversity to the language but also reflect the cultural and linguistic heritage of the
speakers. Exploring dialect words in English for coursework provides an opportunity
to delve into the intricacies of regional language variations, examining how lexicon
and pronunciation differ across different areas. Starting from 2018, the president of the
republic of Uzbekistan Shavkat Mirziyoyev created many convenience for the students
in order to achieve to better goals and better future. Even made some changes for
applying universities and created more and more vacant places at universities. [1,66]
This coursework aims to shed light on the fascinating world of dialect words,
their origins, and their enduring presence in the ever-evolving English language.
Understanding and analyzing dialect words can help linguists and language enthusiasts
gain insights into the historical, social, and geographical contexts in which English has
developed. It allows us to grasp the influences of migration, settlement patterns, and
cultural exchange on language diversity. Additionally, studying dialect words can aid
in preserving and documenting endangered languages, as many dialect words are at
risk of falling out of use due to globalization and standardization.
This coursework will explore notable examples of dialect words from various
regions, including the British Isles, North America, the Caribbean, and other English-
speaking countries worldwide. Through examining specific vocabulary and
expressions unique to different dialects, we will uncover the richness and complexity
of English as a global language. Furthermore, this coursework will also examine the
challenges that arise when studying and classifying dialect words. It will explore issues
of standardization, linguistic variation, and the influence of technology on the
preservation and adaptation of dialect words in modern times. Studying dialect words
is an intriguing and essential aspect of understanding the diversity and evolution of the](https://docx.uz/documents/427640b1-aa46-4ca6-bcaf-8b452aa06cc1/page_3.png?v=1)
![6CHAPTER I. THE ORIGIN AND ETYMOLOGY OF DIALECT WORDS
TO UNDERSTAND THEIR HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
1.1. What is dialect words?
Languages evolve, proliferate, and disappear, in a constantly varying,
amorphous conglomeration of distinct yet interconnected languages. This
diversification extends down into each language creating smaller enclaves of
varieties, more commonly termed dialects. in regards to the linguistic aspects of
variation that make a dialect unique, namely -grammar, lexis, and phonology. It
will then address some of the issues surrounding dialect classification before
exploring some of the motivations behind its study. In its most basic designation
a dialect is a sub-categorization of a language, linguistically differentiated via
grammar, lexis, and in terms of speech - phonology. The OED defines dialect as
‘Manner of speaking, language, speech; esp. a manner of speech peculiar to, or
characteristic of, a particular person or class’. Although this genericism broadly
fulfils societies’ perception of dialect, it belies the covert connotation that a
dialect is a ‘sub-standard’ rather than ‘non-standard’ form , hence linguists use
the term ‘variety’ interchangeably. However, any form of dialect, including the
standard one, can incite social prejudice, covert prestige, ridicule, and even
humor [2,44].
Consequently, dialect is used extensively to promote characterization in
literature. These associations, and the stereotypes that arise from them, are linked
to the classification of dialects as either regional - populations that share a
common core of linguistic characteristics that originate in a particular
geographical locale, or social (sociolects) - groups of people of the same
demographic that share a common core, and stratified by means of ‘’upper’,
‘middle’, and ‘lower’, or working class. It should be noted that regional and
social dialects are inextricably linked; the higher a dialect is on the social scale
the less regional variation occurs. At the higher end is the core/prestige dialect, a](https://docx.uz/documents/427640b1-aa46-4ca6-bcaf-8b452aa06cc1/page_6.png?v=1)
![7supra-regional one, labelled Standard English, which includes recommendations
on grammar and lexis but not accent [2,47].
Therefore, wherever mention is made of grammatical or lexical variation in
the following sections it will be in relation to this standard, whilst phonetic
variation will be in relation to the highest prestige accent - Received
Pronunciation: Grammatical differences concern the underlying structure and
rules of a language, namely syntax (sentence/phrase structure) and morphology
(word structure). Examples include the use of multiple negations - I didn’t have
no dinner, lexical substitution - He went out without no shoes on (no for any),
and a propensity in South Welsh English to use third person singular in all
persons - I likes it. Lexical differences stem from the passing down of traditional
terminology, adaptation of established words, or the introduction of new words.
For example, in Welsh English the use of tidy to mean good or nice - that’s a
tidy car, and certain words used non-discriminately, e.g. borrow and lend - can I
lend some money?
Phonetic:
a) Incidence of Phoneme usage differs for historical or other reasons, e.g.
Northern English uses /u:/ whereas RP uses / /, such as /bu:k/ instead of /b k/ʊ ʊ
(book).
b) Pronunciation of phoneme varies slightly, such as the difference between
[man] and [mæn] (man) in some dialects because of a slightly higher tongue
position. ii) Phonological:
a) Systemic (phonemic inventory) differences:
• Loss of discrimination: for example, most Scottish dialects don’t distinguish
/æ/ from /a:/, so words like /sæm/ (sam) and /sa:m/ (psalm) are not differentiated.
• Loss of phoneme(s): for example, Northern varieties lack / /;
ʌ consequently,
words like put and putt are pronounced /p t/.
ʊ Alternatively, this can be
represented in terms of a Southern/Northern (partial) diasystem
b) Distributional (phonotactic) differences: for example, in RP the occurrence of
/r/ is restricted to pre-vocalic positions (non-rhotic), such as in /h r.i/
ʌ (hurry) and](https://docx.uz/documents/427640b1-aa46-4ca6-bcaf-8b452aa06cc1/page_7.png?v=1)
![8/r d/ɒ (rod). Some dialects, mainly South West England, pronounce /r/ in all
positions (rhotic) e.g. /ka:r/ whereas RP pronounces /ka:/ (car). for short
vowels, in line with Weinreich : Southern, Northern // ɛˌ ɪ ≈æ ≈SN ~ ≈
ʊ ʌʊ ɒ
Even though discriminating between linguistic variables appears relatively
simple, the issue of differentiating dialects from languages is not. If every
individual speaks a variety of a language, termed an idiolect, and we define
dialect as a group of idiolects with a common core of similarities, how do we
decide if someone is using the communal features of a dialect or a separate
language?
One criterion is purely linguistic – ‘mutual intelligibility’, i.e. if dialect ‘X’
understands dialect ‘Y’ they speak the same language. Unfortunately, there are
problems with this generalization - differences between dialects may accumulate
to the point of mutual unintelligibility because of where they lie respectively
along the ‘dialect continuum’, a succession of geographically/socially adjacent
dialects where the differences between dialects are directly relatable to their
distance apart on a scale [3,126].
Therefore, a second, more culturally biased criterion is based on the idea of
‘heteronomy’ and ‘autonomy’. In other words, if a standard exists in a language
and the speakers understand and look toward it as such, they are regarded as
speaking a dialect of that language. They are dependent (heteronomous) on that
language as a standard bearer. A good example, albeit an oversimplification,
occurs in Chinese. China has nine regional dialects, many of which are mutually
unintelligible.
However, not only do they share a standard written form, but also, many
speakers have sufficient knowledge of the official dialect (Mandarin) to use it as a
lingua franca. Thus, China can be said to be a true diglossic. However, there is
also a third criterion; it involves a language’s political status. In other words, as
Shohomy argues, ‘language has become a tool […] a symbolic political
instrument’ used to establish national identity, sometimes without thought to the
effects on culture.](https://docx.uz/documents/427640b1-aa46-4ca6-bcaf-8b452aa06cc1/page_8.png?v=1)
![9Therefore, differentiating language from dialect is somewhat a linguistic
matter and somewhat a matter of external influence, usually by those in power
seeking widespread homogeneity via the construction of a ‘hegemonic “national”
language. Dialect, a variety of a language that signals where a person comes
from. The notion is usually interpreted geographically (regional dialect), but it
also has some application in relation to a person’s social background (class
dialect) or occupation (occupational dialect) [4,79].
The word dialect comes from the Ancient Greek dialektos “discourse, language,
dialect,” which is derived from dialegesthai “to discourse, talk.” A dialect is
chiefly distinguished from other dialects of the same language by features of
linguistic structure—i.e., grammar (specifically morphology and syntax) and
vocabulary. In morphology (word formation), various dialects in the Atlantic
states have clim, clum, clome, or cloome instead of climbed, and, in syntax
(sentence structure), there are “sick to his stomach,” “sick at his stomach,” “sick
in,” “sick on,” and “sick with.” On the level of vocabulary, examples of dialectal
differences include American English subway, contrasting with British .
English underground; and corn, which means “maize” in the United States,
Canada, and Australia, “wheat” in England, and “oats” in Scotland. Nevertheless,
while dialects of the same language differ, they still possess a common core of
features. Although some linguists include phonological features (such as vowels,
consonants, and intonation) among the dimensions of dialect, the standard
practice is to treat such features as aspects of accent.
In the sound system of American English, for example, some speakers
pronounce greasy with an “s” sound, while others pronounce it with a “z” sound.
Accent differences of this kind are extremely important as regional and class
indicators in every language. Their role is well recognized in Great Britain, for
example, where the prestige accent, called Received Pronunciation, is used as an
educated standard and differences in regional accent, both rural and urban, are
frequent. There is far less accent variation in Canada, Australia, and large parts of
the United States [4,83].](https://docx.uz/documents/427640b1-aa46-4ca6-bcaf-8b452aa06cc1/page_9.png?v=1)
![10Frequently, the label dialect, or dialectal, is attached to substandard speech,
language usage that deviates from the accepted norm—e.g., the speech of many
of the heroes of Mark Twain’s novels. On the other hand, the standard language
can also be regarded as one of the dialects of a given language, though one that
has attracted special prestige. In a historical sense, the term dialect is sometimes
applied to a language considered as one of a group deriving from a common
ancestor. Thus, English, Swedish, and German are sometimes treated as
Germanic dialects. There is often considerable difficulty in deciding whether two
linguistic varieties are dialects of the same language or two separate but closely
related languages; this is especially true in parts of the world where speech
communities have been little studied. In these cases especially, decisions
regarding dialects versus languages must be to some extent arbitrary [5,51].
Normally, dialects of the same language are considered to be mutually
intelligible, while different languages are not. Intelligibility between dialects is,
however, almost never absolutely complete. On the other hand, speakers of
closely related languages can still communicate to a certain extent when each
uses his own mother tongue. Thus, the criterion of intelligibility is quite relative.
In more-developed societies the distinction between dialects and related
languages is easier to make because of the existence of standard languages.
Sometimes sociopolitical factors play a role in drawing the distinction between
dialect and language. Linguistic varieties that are considered dialects in one set of
historical circumstances may be considered languages in another. Before the
ethnic conflicts in the Balkans in the 1990s, Serbo-Croatian was viewed by its
speakers as a single language consisting of several dialects, spoken in Serbia,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Croatia; afterward, local communities began to talk
of Croatian and Serbian as distinct languages. Among the synonyms for dialect,
the word idiom refers to any kind of dialect, or even language, whereas patois, a
term from French, denotes rural or provincial dialects, often with a deprecatory
connotation. A similar term is vernacular, which refers to the common, everyday
speech of the ordinary people of a region. An idiolect is the dialect of an](https://docx.uz/documents/427640b1-aa46-4ca6-bcaf-8b452aa06cc1/page_10.png?v=1)
![11individual person at one time. This term implies an awareness that no two persons
speak in exactly the same way and that each person’s dialect is constantly
undergoing change—e.g., by the introduction of newly acquired words. Most
recent investigations emphasize the versatility of each person’s speech habits
according to levels or styles of language usage [6,96].](https://docx.uz/documents/427640b1-aa46-4ca6-bcaf-8b452aa06cc1/page_11.png?v=1)
![13a language but rather legitimate linguistic systems with their own grammar and
vocabulary.
Charles A. Ferguson: Ferguson, an American linguist, distinguishes
between dialect and standard language. He views dialect as a regional or social
variety of a language, whereas the standard language is considered prestigious
and generally associated with political, economic, and cultural power.
Henry Sweet: Sweet was an influential British phonetician and scholar of
linguistics. He defined dialect as a variety of language characterized by
distinctive pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. Sweet divided dialects into
two categories: regional dialects, which are associated with specific geographical
areas, and social dialects, which are linked to particular social groups.
William Labov: Labov, an American linguist, approaches dialect from a
sociolinguistic perspective. He considers dialect as a systematic variation in
language usage within a speech community. Labov's research focuses on studying
how dialects emerge, change, and are perceived by different communities.
It is important to note that these scholars present various perspectives on
dialects, emphasizing different aspects such as geography, social groups,
pronunciation, language variations, and cultural diversity. Their definitions
collectively contribute to understanding the complex nature of dialects within the
broader field of linguistics [7,194].
Sociolinguistics pays attention to the social aspects of human language.
Sociolinguistics discusses the relationship between language and society. This
discussion talks about the five types of those topics because they are really
problematic sort of things, which relate the social life of the local people. In
relation to this, the most important point is to distinguish the terms from one to
another. There are three main points to discuss: language, dialects and register.
Languages which are used as medium of communication have many varieties.
These language variations are created by the existence of social stratification in
the community. Social stratification will determine the form of language use by
the speakers who involve in the interaction [8,182].](https://docx.uz/documents/427640b1-aa46-4ca6-bcaf-8b452aa06cc1/page_13.png?v=1)
![14The language variation can be in the form of dialects and register. Dialect
of a language correlates with such social factors such as socio-economic status,
age, occupation of the speakers. Dialect is a variety of a particular language
which is used by a particular group of speakers that is signaled by systematic
markers such as syntactical, phonological, grammatical markers. Dialects which
are normally found in the speech community may be in the forms of regional
dialect and social dialect. Register is the variation of language according to the
use. It means that where the language is used as a means of communication for
certain purposes. It depends entirely on the domain of language used. It is also a
function of all the other components of speech situation. A formal setting may
condition a formal register, characterized by particular lexical items. The informal
setting may be reflected in casual register that indicates less formal vocabulary,
more non-standard features, greater instances of stigmatized variables, and so on
[9,72].](https://docx.uz/documents/427640b1-aa46-4ca6-bcaf-8b452aa06cc1/page_14.png?v=1)
![16CHAPTER II. DIALECT AND ITS TYPES
2.1. List of dialects of English
Dialects are linguistic varieties that may differ in pronunciation,
vocabulary, spelling, and other aspects of grammar. For the classification of
varieties of English only in of pronunciation, see regional accents of English.
Dialects can be defined as "sub-forms of languages which are, in general,
mutually comprehensible." English speakers from different countries and regions
use a variety of different accents (systems of pronunciation) as well as various
localized words and grammatical constructions. Many different dialects can be
identified based on these factors. Dialects can be classified at broader or narrower
levels: within a broad national or regional dialect, various more localised sub-
dialects can be identified, and so on. The combination of differences in
pronunciation and use of local words may make some English dialects almost
unintelligible to speakers from other regions without any prior exposure. The
major native dialects of English are often divided by linguists into three general
categories: the British Isles dialects, those of North America, and those of
Australasia.
Dialects can be associated not only with place but also with particular
social groups. Within a given English-speaking country, there is a form of the
language considered to be Standard English: the Standard Englishes of different
countries differ and can themselves be considered dialects. Standard English is
often associated with the more educated layers of society as well as more formal
registers [10,88].
British and American English are the reference norms for English as
spoken, written, and taught in the rest of the world, excluding countries in which
English is spoken natively such as Australia, Canada, Ireland, and New Zealand.
In many former British Empire countries in which English is not spoken natively,
British English forms are closely followed, alongside numerous American
English usages that have become widespread throughout the English-speaking](https://docx.uz/documents/427640b1-aa46-4ca6-bcaf-8b452aa06cc1/page_16.png?v=1)
![17world. Conversely, a number of countries with historical ties to the United States
tend to follow American English conventions. Many of these countries, while
retaining strong British English or American English influences, have developed
their own unique dialects, which include Indian English and Philippine English.
Chief among other native English dialects are Canadian English and Australian
English, which rank third and fourth in the number of native speakers. For the
most part, Canadian English, while featuring numerous British forms, alongside
indigenous Canadianisms, shares vocabulary, phonology and syntax with
American English, which leads many to recognize North American English as an
organic grouping of dialects. Australian English, likewise, shares many American
and British English usages, alongside plentiful features unique to Australia and
retains a significantly higher degree of distinctiveness from both larger varieties
than does Canadian English. South African English, New Zealand English and
Irish English are also distinctive and rank fifth, sixth, and seventh in the number
of native speakers [11,34].
This is a list of varieties of the English language. Dialects are varieties
differing in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar not to be confused with the
regional accents of English speakers, which mark speakers as members of groups
by their various pronunciations of the standard language.
International classifications:
International English or World English
Commonwealth English
Native American English
North American English
Mid-Atlantic English
South Asian English
East Asian English](https://docx.uz/documents/427640b1-aa46-4ca6-bcaf-8b452aa06cc1/page_17.png?v=1)
![19 Brummie (spoken in Birmingham)
Potteries (North Staffordshire)
Herefordshire
Warwickshire
Worcestershire
East Anglian English
Norfolk dialect (Broad Norfolk)
Suffolk dialect
South East England
Estuary English
Cockney (London)
West Country dialects
Somerset
Devon
Cornwall
Dorset [12,24].
Dialects of English
Europe
British · East Anglian · English English · Estuary · Euro-English · Guernsey
English · Hiberno-English (Ireland) · Highland · Llanito (Gibraltar) · Manx · Mid
Ulster · Midlands · Northern · Received Pronunciation · Scottish · Welsh · West
Country dialects
North America](https://docx.uz/documents/427640b1-aa46-4ca6-bcaf-8b452aa06cc1/page_19.png?v=1)
![20United States · African American Vernacular · Appalachian · Baltimorese ·
Boston · California · Chicano · Cajun · General American · Maine-New
Hampshire · New Jersey · New York City · North American · North Central
American · Inland Northern American · Pacific Northwest · Philadelphia ·
Pittsburgh · Southern American · Tampanian · Utah · Yat · Yooper · Canadian ·
West/Central Canadian · Maritimer · Newfoundland · Quebec
Caribbean
Bermudian · Bahamian · Caribbean · Jamaican
Oceania | Asia
Australian · New Zealand · Australian Aboriginal · Hawaiian Pidgin | Burmese ·
Hong Kong · Indian · Manglish · Philippine · Singlish · Sri Lankan
Africa
Liberian · Malawian · South African
Miscellaneous
Basic · Commonwealth · Globish · International · Mid-Atlantic · Plain ·
Simplified · Special · Standard [13,63].](https://docx.uz/documents/427640b1-aa46-4ca6-bcaf-8b452aa06cc1/page_20.png?v=1)
![212.2. Dialect examples
Cockney is a dialect of the English language, mainly spoken in London and
its environs, particularly by Londoners with working-class and lower middle-
class roots. The term Cockney is also used as a demonym for a person from the
East End or, traditionally, born within earshot of Bow Bells.
Examples of Dialect
Example 1
“Will ye go, lassie, go?”
This is a line from a Scottish folk song, written in a light Scottish dialect.
Both of the underlined words are associated with the Scottish dialect of English.
However, none of the words are misspelled, so it’s not a heavy-handed use of
dialect.
Example 2
“He was alienated, too…by the indecipherable words of popular songs which
American ears could apparently make out without strain . . . by the broadly
spoken e’s that turned expression into axprassion, I’ll get the check into I’ll gat
the chack.”
This line is about a man from India first coming to America and trying to
understand its culture. Normally, you’d have a novel where the American
characters speak normally but the Indian characters might speak in dialect. But
this novel reverses the experience, and tries to get us to hear how a “normal”
American accent sounds to someone from another culture [14,167].
Examples of Dialect in Literature
Example 1
“If family and friend turn out good, is a bonus. Enjoy it. But don’t expect it.”
(Merle Collins – The Color of Forgetting)](https://docx.uz/documents/427640b1-aa46-4ca6-bcaf-8b452aa06cc1/page_21.png?v=1)
![25ancestor. Thus, English, Swedish, and German are sometimes treated as
Germanic dialects [15,249]
There is often considerable difficulty in deciding whether two linguistic
varieties are dialects of the same language or two separate but closely related
languages; this is especially true in parts of the world where speech communities
have been little studied. In these cases especially, decisions regarding dialects
versus languages must be to some extent arbitrary. Normally, dialects of the same
language are considered to be mutually intelligible, while different languages are
not. Intelligibility between dialects is, however, almost never absolutely
complete. On the other hand, speakers of closely related languages can still
communicate to a certain extent when each uses his own mother tongue. Thus,
the criterion of intelligibility is quite relative. In more-developed societies the
distinction between dialects and related languages is easier to make because of
the existence of standard languages. Sometimes sociopolitical factors play a role
in drawing the distinction between dialect and language. Linguistic varieties that
are considered dialects in one set of historical circumstances may be considered
languages in another. Before the ethnic conflicts in the Balkans in the 1990s,
Serbo-Croatian was viewed by its speakers as a single language consisting of
several dialects, spoken in Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Croatia;
afterward, local communities began to talk of Croatian and Serbian as distinct
languages.
Among the synonyms for dialect, the word idiom refers to any kind of
dialect, or even language, whereas patois, a term from French, denotes rural or
provincial dialects, often with a deprecatory connotation. A similar term is
vernacular, which refers to the common, everyday speech of the ordinary people
of a region. An idiolect is the dialect of an individual person at one time. This
term implies an awareness that no two persons speak in exactly the same way and
that each person’s dialect is constantly undergoing change—e.g., by the
introduction of newly acquired words. Most recent investigations emphasize the](https://docx.uz/documents/427640b1-aa46-4ca6-bcaf-8b452aa06cc1/page_25.png?v=1)
![33informally. In the German-, Czech-, and Slovene-speaking areas of middle
Europe, for example, a basically regional dialect from which the most striking
local features have been eliminated is spoken. The use of this type of language is
supported by psychological factors, such as feelings of solidarity with a certain
region and pride in its traditions or the relaxed mood connected with informal
behavior [15,302].](https://docx.uz/documents/427640b1-aa46-4ca6-bcaf-8b452aa06cc1/page_33.png?v=1)
Dialect words in English